STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
 INTRODUCTION

• FP is a structure consist of several layers of material placed on a

subgrade.
• each layers receives the loads from above layer, spreads and
distribute them out, then pass on to the layer below.
• the further down in the pavement structure a particular layer is, the
less load it will carry.
INTRODUCTION
ELEMENTS OF A FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT STRUCTURE

• Surface Course
-usually consist of two layers: wearing course(top) and binder course(bottom).
-wearing course is the layer that contact with the traffic loads through vehicles tires.
-WC usually impervious to prevent entrance of surface water into the pavement.
-BC provides a smooth platform onto which the wearing course is constructed and
contributes to the structural strength of the pavement.
-WC and BC most often constructed out of HMA.
• Road Base
-layer that lies immediately beneath the surface course.
-it purpose is to distribute traffic loads onto the lower layers
-usually the thickest layer in the pavement structure
-constructed using crushed aggregate, cement stabilized layer or HMA.
 • Sub-base
-layer in between the road base and subgrade.
-functions as a loading distributing layer, minimizing the intrusion of fines
particles from subgrades into the pavement structure and also to improve
drainage system.
-materials to construct sub-base are usually crushed aggregate of a lower
quality than the road base but better than the subgrade soils.
-sub-base is an optional layer, where it may or may not be present in the
pavement structure layer.
• Subgrade
-subgrade is the compacted soil layer that forms the foundation of the
pavement system.
-subgrade soils are subjected to lower stresses than the surface, base, and
sub-base courses. -since load stresses decrease with depth, the controlling
subgrade stress usually lies at the top of the subgrade. T
-the combined thickness of sub-base, base, and wearing surface must be
great enough to reduce the stresses occurring in the subgrade to values
that will not cause excessive distortion or displacement of the subgrade soil
layer.
 FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER IN THE DESIGN

1. Failure Mechanism
• Permanent Deformation
-when a wheel load passes over a point in a flexible pavement, an
applied stress pulse is transmit, resulting strain pulse consist of a resilient
and permanent component.
-excessive accumulation of permanent strains from all layers leads to
failure via surface rutting.
• Cracking
-is a fracture failure results from fatigue in bituminous materials.
-fatigue cracking occur when a bituminous pavement are subjected to
repeated stressing under traffic loading.
2. Traffic Loading
-vehicles load comprises tire load and pressures, axle and wheel configurations,
load repetition, traffic distribution across the pavement and vehicle speed.
a) Tire loads and pressures
-total load applied by the tire load and pressures determines the depth of
pavement required to ensure that the subgrade is not overstressed
-the higher the tire pressure the less contact occur between tire and pavement,
hence the higher the contact pressure at the pavement surface.
b) Axle and wheel configuration
-many commercial vehicles have axles with twin-tired wheel assemblies.
-as tire loads get closer together their influence areas on pavement begin to
overlap.
c) Load repetition
-the loads from vehicle will damage the pavement over the time.
-each individual loads inflict a certain amount of unrecoverable damage on
pavement.
-this damage is cumulative over the design life of pavement and when it reaches
certain value, the pavement is considered to reach their useful design life.
d) Traffic distribution
-on any particular road, different lane may carry different portion of
loading.
-the outer most lane often carries the most heavy vehicles, therefore it
usually subjected to the heaviest loading, hence it suffer the greatest
deformation.
e) Vehicle speed
-generally, slower speeds and stop condition allow a particular load
to be applied for longer period of time resulting in greater deflection
(damage) on the pavement.
-for the same volume of traffic, greater thickness of pavement is
required in urban areas compare to rural areas due to the lower
average speeds in urban area.
f) Equivalent standard axle (ESA)
-this approach converts the wheel loads of various magnitudes and
repetitions to an equivalent number of equivalent loads based on the
amount of damage they do on pavement.
3. Environmental Factors
-environmental variations can have a significant impact on pavement
materials and the subgrade soils, which will affect pavement performance.
-significant environmental factors that will affect pavement performance
are temperature and moisture.
-generally, the performance of a bituminous pavement deteriorates with
rising temperature.
-temperature can cause expansion and contraction in the asphalt
pavement.
-asphalt becomes stiff and brittle at low temperature and soft and visco-
elastic at high temperature.
-moisture can affect the pavement design life and user safety.
-excessive rainfall can raise subgrade moisture content making it difficult to
compact.
-accumulation of water on the road surface reduces the skid resistance and
may cause hydroplaning in severely rutted areas.
 METHODS OF DESIGN FOR NEW PAVEMENTS
1. Methods based on precedent
-rule of thumb method
-rely upon standard thickness of pavement for a particular classification of road.
-the same thickness of pavement may be constructed on a weak subgrade as on
strong one as long as the road class is the same.
2. Empirical methods
-based on either soil classification or soil strength test (CBR) methods
-soil strength test method is the basis of pavement design used in UK(Road Note 29
and Road Note 31) and US (AASHTO Design Method and California Design Method)
3. Theoretical methods
-has two categories; theoretical (known as analytical or mechanistic) and semi-
theoretical (mechanistic-empirical) methods.
-theoretical methods are based on mechanical models and still need practical
verification
-mechanistic approach seeks to relate pavement parameter to physical causes.
-parameters: stresses, strains and deflection
-physical causes are the loads and pavement materials properties.
 MALAYSIAN DESIGN METHODS

• design method are based on AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement

Structures
• using Arahan Teknik Jalan 5/85 [Road note 5/85]
• Data required in the design criteria:
-Design period, n (JKR suggest to use 10 years)
-ADT, initial average daily traffic
-Pc, percentage of commercial vehicles
-average annual traffic growth, r
-Subgrade CBR
-Terrain conditions (Rolling, mountainous, flat)
 DESIGN PROCESS

1. Calculate the initial annual commercial vehicle for one direction

Vo = ADT x ½ x 365 x (Pc/100)
ADT = initial average daily traffic for both direction
Pc = Percentage of commercial vehicle
2. Calculate the total number for commercial vehicles for the required
design period in one direction:
Vc = Vo [(1 + r)n – 1] / r
r = traffic growth rate
n = design periods
 DESIGN PROCESS

3. Calculate the total cumulative equivalent standard axle load

application for the design period:
ESA = Vc x e
e = equivalent factor
 DESIGN PROCESS
4. Check daily capacity at the end of the design period
• Total one way traffic at the end of x years
Vx = Vi (1+r)x
• Maximum one way hourly flow
c = I x R x T where I = ideal hourly capacity
R = roadway reduction factor
T = traffic reduction factor
• In JKR Standard, traffic loading for an hour is assumed that equal
with 10% daily loading. Therefore, one way daily capacity
C = 10 x c
• Check if Vx > C then the number of years, n required to reach the
daily capacity is
n = log(C/Vi) / log (1+r)
 DESIGN PROCESS
4. Check daily capacity at the end of the design period
 DESIGN PROCESS
5. Determine the subgrade CBR
In the case of varying CBR within a meter depth of subgrade, the
mean CBR is determined as follows;
CBRm = [(h1CBR11/3 + h2CBR21/3 + … + hnCBRn1/3) / 1000]3
Where: CBRm = mean CBR value for that location
CBR1,CBR2,…CBRn = CBR value for each layer
h1, h2 … hn = thickness of each layer (mm)
h1 + h2 +… + hn = 1000mm
 DESIGN PROCESS
6. Obtain the equivalent thickness, TA’ from nomograph
 DESIGN PROCESS
7. Calculate the thickness for each layer:
TA’ = SN = a1D1 + a2D2 + … + anDn
Where a1, a2 … an = structural coefficients
D1, D2 … Dn = thickness of each layer
8. Sketch the design thickness
DESIGN PROCESS
DESIGN PROCESS
 EXAMPLE 1

• Determine the required thickness for a road based on these data:

Carriageway width = 7.0m Layer Materials:
Shoulder width = 2.0m Surfacing: Asphaltic concrete
ADT, both ways = 4800 Road base: Stabilised Crushed
Aggregate
Commercial vehicle = 13% Sub-base: Sand
Traffic growth rate = 5.5% Design Life: 15 Years
Subgrade CBR = 6% Terrain: Rolling
 EXAMPLE 2

• Determine the required thickness for a road based on these data:

Carriageway width = 7.0m Layer Materials:
Shoulder width = 2.0m Surfacing: Asphaltic concrete
ADT, both ways = 4800 Road base: Stabilised Crushed
Aggregate
Commercial vehicle = 13% Sub-base: Sand
Traffic growth rate = 5.5% Design Life: 20 Years
Subgrade for CBR = 6% Terrain: Rolling