Arba Minch University, Institute of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering

Chapter 3: Bridge Loading and Design Methods

3.1 Types of loads
The following permanent and transient loads and forces shall be considered for design of bridges
where applicable. The load provisions may also be applied to the structural evaluation of existing
bridges.
1.1. Dead Loads
(DC = Structural Component; DW = Wearing surface; EV = Vertical Earth fill)
Dead load shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities
attached thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening.
In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in table below, shall be used
for dead loads.
Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials
MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)
Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10

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1.2. Live Loads

Number of Design Lanes: Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking
the integer part of the ratio w/3600, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs
and/or barriers.
Multiple Presence Factor of Live Load: The provisions of this subchapter shall not be applied
to the fatigue limit state for which one design truck is used, regardless of the number of design
lanes. Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes but this is
unlikely that all adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously. This will be considered by the
multiple presence factors.
Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65

When the loading condition includes the pedestrian loads combined with one or more lanes of the
vehicular live load, the pedestrian loads shall be taken to be one loaded lane.
a) Vehicular Live Loads
Vehicular live loading on the roadways of bridges structures, designated HL-93, and shall consist
of a combination of the:
 Design truck
 design tandem
 Design lane load

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Design truck: The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck shall be as
specified in Figure below.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm

Characteristics of the Design Truck

Design Tandem: The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges shall consist of a pair of 110 kN
axles spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. See below.

Design Tandem Load

Design Lane Load: The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3kN/m, uniformly distributed
in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design lane load shall not be subject to
a dynamic load allowance.

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Dynamic Load Allowance (IM = Vehicular Dynamic Load Allowance): Dynamic effects due to
moving vehicles shall be attributed to two sources:
1-Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and
2-Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long
undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to
resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and
vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.
Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:
 Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and
 Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.
The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane load.
The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).
Dynamic Load Allowance, IM
Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
 All Other Limit States 33%
The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:
IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%
Where: DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)
1.3. Centrifugal forces (CE= Vehicular Centrifugal Force):
Centrifugal force is due to inertia force of vehicles on curved bridges at speed. Centrifugal forces
shall be applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway surface.
Centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem
and the factor C, taken as:
C = 4 v2
3 g*R
Where: v = highway design speed (m/s)
g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)

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R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)

1.4. Breaking Force (BR= Vehicular Braking Force):
From AASHTO Commentary 3.6.4 Based on energy principles, and assuming uniform
deceleration (retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:
b = v2
2ga
Where a = the length of uniform deceleration.

From AASHTO Article 3.6.4 Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the
design truck or tandem per lane placed in all design lanes headed in the same direction.
These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at a distance of 1800 mm above the roadway
surface in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects.
1.5. Vehicular Collision (CT= Vehicular Collision Force):
Unless protections are provided a horizontal force of 1800KN applied at 1.2m above the ground
should be considered.
1.6. Pedestrian Loads
A pedestrian load of 3.6 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.
1.7. Water Loads (WA= Water Load and Stream Pressure)
 Static Pressure: Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface
that is retaining the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above
the point of consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity = 9.81
m/s2).
p =  * g * z * 10-9
Where p = static pressure (Mpa)
 = density of water (kg/m3)
z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
 Buoyancy: Buoyancy shall be considered an uplift force, taken as the sum of the vertical
components of static pressures, acting on all components below design water level.

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 Stream Pressure: Longitudinal: The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of
longitudinal stream pressure and the projected surface exposed thereto.
p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2
Where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)
CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table below
V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit
states and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state

Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8
Drag Coefficient
Lateral: The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an
angle, , to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure below) shall be taken as:
PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2
Where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)
CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table below.
Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Angle, , between direction of flow and longitudinal axis of the pier CL

0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0

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1.8. Wind Loads (WL= Wind on Live load; WS= Wind load on Structure)
Wind Pressure on Structures, (WS): For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m
length the wind load on structures shall be neglected.

In the absence of more precise data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
2
VDZ 
PD  PB  
VB 
Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table below:
VDZ = design velocity of wind at design elevation, Z (Km/hr)
VB= Base wind velocity (Km/hr)
STRUCTURAL WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa
COMPONENT
Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable

Table 3-12 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)

The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord and 2.2
kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not less than 4.4 kN/m2
on beam or girder components.
Wind Pressure on Vehicles, (WL): When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be
applied to both structure and vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an
interruptible, moving force of 1.46 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and shall
be transmitted to the structure
Aero elastic Instability: Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been
shown to be aero elastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are under
about 30.0. Wind tunnel testing of bridges and other civil engineering structures is a highly
developed technology, which shall be used to study the wind response characteristics of a structural
model or to verify the results of analysis. This is especially applicable to long spans.

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1.9. Earthquake Effects (EQ= Earthquake)

Earthquake loads are given by the product of the elastic seismic response coefficient Csm and the
equivalent weight of the superstructure. These are inertia forces due to mass of the bridge when a
sudden shaking of the ground occurs. Minimum seat width requirements shall be at least 500 mm
at each abutment.
For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified in the table:
Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges
Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

In which:
* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)
UL = uniform load elastic method
SM = single-mode elastic method
MM = multimode elastic method
The selection of the method of analysis depends on seismic zone, regularity, and importance of
the bridge.
Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency vehicles
and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-year return
period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design earthquake
and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after a large
earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These bridges should be regarded as critical
structures.

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1.10. Earth Pressure (EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure; ES = Earth Surcharge;

LS = Live Load Surcharge; DD = Down drag)
Earth pressure shall be considered as a function of the:
 Type and density of earth,  Location of groundwater table,
 Water content,  Earth-structure interaction,
 Soil creep characteristics,  Amount of surcharge, and
 Degree of compaction  Earthquake effects.

Walls that can tolerate little or no movement should be designed for at-rest earth pressure. Walls
that can move away from the soil mass should be designed for pressures between active and at-
rest conditions, depending on the magnitude of the tolerable movements. Movement required to
reach the minimum active pressure or the maximum passive pressure is a function of the wall
height and the soil type. Some typical values of these mobilizing movements, relative to wall
height, are given in Table below:

Approximate Values of Relative Movements Required to Reach Minimum Active or Maximum

Passive Earth Pressure Conditions
Values of /H
Type of Backfill Active Passive
Dense sand 0.001 0.01
Medium-dense sand 0.002 0.02
Loose sand 0.004 0.04
Compacted silt 0.002 0.02
Compacted lean clay 0.010 0.05
Compacted fat clay 0.010 0.05
Where:
 = movement of top of wall required to reach minimum active or maximum passive pressure by
tilting or lateral translation (mm)
H = height of wall (mm)
For walls that are backfilled with cohesive materials, the effects of soil creep should be taken into
consideration in estimating the design earth pressures.

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Where activity by mechanical compaction equipment is anticipated within a distance of one-half

the height of the wall, taken as the difference in elevation between the point where finished grade
intersects the back of the wall and the base of the wall, the effect of additional earth pressure that
shall be induced by compaction shall be taken into account.
Wherever possible, the development of hydrostatic water pressure on walls should be eliminated
through use of free-draining (rapid-draining) backfill material and/or the use of weep holes and
crushed rock, pipe drains, gravel drains, perforated drains, or geofabric drains that provide
drainage. Where soils are subject to saturation and seismic or other cyclic/instantaneous loads,
special consideration should be given to addressing the possibility of soil liquefaction.
1.11. EH = Horizontal Earth Pressure
There are two earth pressure theories used. These are Rankin and Coulomb Earth Pressure
Theories. Coulomb theory is recommended by AASHTO for masonry and RC abutment since this
theory holds better for the actual situation. Basic earth pressure (p, in MPa) shall be assumed to be
linearly proportional to the depth of earth and taken as:
p = kh*s*g*z *10-9
Where: kh = coefficient of lateral earth pressure taken as ko, from table below for walls that do not
deflect or move,
Soil type Coefficient of Lateral Earth Pressure, ko
OCR = 1 OCR = 2 OCR = 5 OCR = 10
Loose sand 0.45 0.65 1.10 1.60
Medium Sand 0.40 0.60 1.05 1.55
Dense Sand 0.35 0.55 1.00 1.50
Silt (ML) 0.50 0.70 1.10 1.60
Lean Clay (CL) 0.60 0.80 1.20 1.65
Highly Plastic Clay (CH) 0.65 0.80 1.10 1.40
Or ka, specified in Equations below, walls that deflect
ka = sin2 ( + /)
* sin2 sin ( - )
In which:

 = 1 + sin (/ + ) sin (/ - )

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sin ( - ) sin ( + )
Where:  = friction angle between fill and wall
 = angle of fill to the horizontal
 = angle of backfill of wall to the vertical
/ = effective angle of internal friction ()
s = density of soil (kg/m3)
z = depth below the surface of earth (mm)
g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)
1.12. ES = Earth Surcharge; LS = Live Load Surcharge
Where a uniform surcharge is present, a constant horizontal earth pressure, p (MPa), shall be
added to the basic earth pressure. This constant earth pressure shall be taken as:
p = ks qs
Where: ks = coefficient of earth pressure due to surcharge
qs = uniform surcharge applied to the upper surface of the active earth wedge (MPa)
A live load surcharge shall be applied where vehicular load is expected to act on the surface of the
backfill within a distance equal to the wall height behind the back face of the wall.
The increase in horizontal pressure due to live load surcharge shall be estimated as:
p = k*s*g*heq *10-9
where: p = constant horizontal earth pressure due to uniform surcharge (MPa)
s = density of soil (kg /m3)
k = coefficient of earth pressure
heq = equivalent height of soil for the design truck (mm)
Equivalent heights of soil, heq, for highway loadings shall be taken from Table below. Linear
interpolation shall be used for intermediate wall heights.
The “Wall Height” shall be taken as the distance between the surface of the backfill and the bottom
of the footing.
Wall Height (mm) heq (mm)
1500 1700
3000 1200
6000 760

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9000 610
Equivalent Height of Soil, heq for Different Wall Heights Due to Vehicular Loading
N.B If the vehicular loading is transmitted through a structural slab, which is also supported by
means other than earth, an appropriate reduction in the surcharge loads shall be permitted.
1.13. Down Drag (DD):
When soil surrounding piles settle, it applies a downward force. In this case, the force should be
considered.
1.14. Force Effects Due to Superimposed Deformations: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE
Uniform temperature, (TU): Bridge materials expend and contract in response to rise and fall of
temperature. The difference between the lowest or the highest temperature and the base
construction temperature assumed in design shall be used to calculate thermal deformation effects.
Temperature Gradient, (TG): Temperature rise can differ on the top and bottom surfaces of
abridge because the top surface is subjected to direct solar radiation.
Differential Shrinkage, (SH): Where appropriate, differential shrinkage strains between
concretes of different age and composition, and between concrete and steel or wood, shall be
determined. The designer may specify timing and sequence of construction in order to minimize
stresses due to differential shrinkage between components.
Creep, (CR): In determining force effects and deformations due to creep, dependence on time and
changes in compressive stresses shall be taken into account.
Settlement, (SE): This will cause internal forces in continues structures. Force effects due to
extreme values of differential settlements among substructures and within individual substructure
units shall be considered.
3.2 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY:
In engineering design the general principle is that the resistance of a cross section has to exceed
the effects come from the applied loads. That is
Resistance ≥Effect of Loads
When a particular loading condition reaches and just exceeds the resistance capacity of the
provided section failure is the result. Such a condition is referred to as a Limit State.
A limit state is a condition beyond which a bridge system or bridge component ceases to full fill
the function for which it is designed.

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Preventing a limit state from being reached is the central goal of design of bridges. In addition to
this function, appearance and economy must get due attention.
Safety is achieved by using reasonable margin of safety factors. These factors are results of
collective experience and judgment of qualified group of engineers and officials.
In Highway Bridge design AASHTO LRFD provision is used. The resistance side of the inequality
of Equation above is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor, whose value is usually
less than one, and the load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor, whose value is
usually greater than one.
The load effect at a particular limit state involves a combination of a different load types (Qi) that
have different degrees of predictability. Due to this reason the load effect side is written in a
summation form. The equation is
  Rn   i  Qi

And this equation involves both load factors and resistance factor due to this the design method is
called load and resistance factor design method. In AASHTO LRFD bridge design specification
the equation is given by
   i  Qi    Rn
The additional parameter η is known as load modifier which is incorporated to consider ductility,
redundancy and operational importance of the bridge.
Under the umbrella of the LRFD the strength limit state, extreme event limit state, service limit
state and fatigue and fracture limit state exist.
3.3 LOAD FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS:
The total factored force effect shall be taken as:
Q = ii Qi
Where:
i= load modifier
Qi = force effects from loads specified herein
i = load factors specified in Tables B and C below
Rn= is resistance
Components and connections of a bridge shall satisfy the above equation for the applicable
combinations of factored extreme force effects as specified at each of the limit states presented in
Table A:

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Table A Limit States

STRENGTH I Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge
without wind. A reduced value of 0.50, applicable to all strength load
combinations, specified for uniform temperature (TU), creep (CR), and
shrinkage (SH), used when calculating force effects other than displacements
at the strength limit state, represents an expected reduction of these force
effects in conjunction with the inelastic response of the structure. The
calculation of displacements for these loads utilizes a factor greater than 1.0 to
avoid undersized joints and bearings.
STRENGTH II Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special
design or permit vehicles, without wind.

The permit vehicle should not be assumed to be the only vehicle on the bridge
unless so assured by traffic control. Otherwise, the other lanes should be
assumed to be occupied by the vehicular live load as specified herein. For
bridges longer than the permit vehicle, the presence of the design lane load,
preceding and following the permit load in its lane, should be considered.

STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding
90 km/h.Vehicles become unstable at higher wind velocities. Therefore, high
winds prevent the presence of significant live load on the bridge.

STRENGTH IV Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect
ratios.

The standard calibration process for the strength limit state consists of trying
out various combinations of load and resistance factors on a number of bridges
and their components. Combinations that yield a safety index close to the
target value of  = 3.5 are retained for potential application. From these are
selected constant load factors  and corresponding resistance factors  for each
type of structural component reflecting its use.
This calibration process had been carried out for a large number of bridges
with spans not exceeding 60 m. For the primary components of large bridges,

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the ratio of dead and live load force effects is rather high, and could result in a
set of resistance factors different from those found acceptable for small- and
medium-span bridges. It is believed to be more practical to investigate one
additional load case than to require the use of two sets of resistance factors
with the load factors provided in Strength Load Combination I, depending on
other permanent loads present. For bridges with up to 180 m spans, Load
Combination IV will govern where the dead load to live load force effect ratio
exceeds 7.0.

STRENGTH V Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of
90 km/h (25 m/s) velocity

EXTREME Load combination including earthquake

EVENT I This limit state includes water loads, WA. The probability of a major flood
and an earthquake occurring at the same time is very small. Therefore,
consideration of basing water loads and scour depths on mean discharges shall
be warranted. Live load coincident with an earthquake is discussed elsewhere
in this chapter.
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a
90 km/h (25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related
to deflection control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and
thermoplastic pipe and to control crack width in reinforced concrete structures.
This load combination should also be used for the investigation of slope
stability. Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated
using this load combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses
in prestressed concrete components.

SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of
slip critical connections due to vehicular live load. This load combination
corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures, and it is applicable
only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level, this combination
is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and Strength I Limit
States.

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SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures
with the objective of crack control.
The live load specified in these Specifications reflects, among other things,
exclusion weight limits. The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live
load is that the event is expected to occur about once a year for bridges with
two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with more than two traffic lanes, and
about once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane.

FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational

vehicular live load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having
a constant axle spacing of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.

The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to
be representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of
return cycles of stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements,
components, and connections.

The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as specified
in Table B. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be investigated. For each load
combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into account and that is germane to the
component being designed, including all significant effects due to distortion, shall be multiplied
by the appropriate load factor and multiple presence factor specified in, if applicable.

The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load
combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.
In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall be
applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the load factor that
produces the more critical combination shall be selected from Table C.
Where the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a component or
bridge, the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also be investigated.
The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU), Creep (CR),
and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for all other effects.

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Table B - Load Combinations and Load Factors

Load Combination DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Limit State DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
EL EQ CT
STRENGTH I p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW DC p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.00 -
EVENT I
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY

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Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction
CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream pressure
EQ = earthquake load WL = wind on live load
ES = earth surcharge load WS = wind load on structure
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

Table C - Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

Type of Load Load Factor (p)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
 Active 1.50 0.90
 At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90

 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90

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 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90

Metal Box Culvert
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90

ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75

For example, at Strength I Limit State where the permanent load reaction is positive and live load
can cause a negative reaction, the load combination would be:

0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:

1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).

Load Modifiers, i = D R I :
D = a factor relating to ductility, as specified below
R = a factor relating to redundancy as specified below
I = a factor relating to operational importance as specified below
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin of
safety of bridges.
Ductility: The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the
development of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event
limit states prior to failure.
For the strength limit state:
D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections
D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications
D  0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these Specifications
For all other limit states:
D = 1.00

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Redundancy: Multiple load-path structures should be used unless there are compelling reasons
not to use them.
For the strength limit state:
R 1.05 for nonredundant members
=1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy
0.95 For exceptional levels of redundancy
For all other limit states:
R = 1.00
Operational importance: This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states
only. Some bridges or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational
importance.
Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.
For the strength limit state:
l  1.05 for important bridges
= 1.00 for typical bridges
 0.95 For relatively less important bridges
For all other limit states:
l = 1.00
For Conventional Construction, Resistance Factors Ф shall be taken as
For flexure and tension of RC = 0.9
For flexure and tension of PSC = 1.0
For shear and torsion = 0.9
For bearing on concrete = 0.7
For compression in strut-and-tie model = 0.7
For compression in anchorage zones = 0.8
For tension in steel in anchorage zones = 1.0
For resistance during pile driving = 1.0

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Chapter 4: Super Structure Design

An efficient design of bridge superstructure is essential to achieve overall economy in the whole
bridge structure in that the superstructure dead weight may form a significant portion of the gravity
load the bridge must sustain and transmit to the foundation. A light superstructure is economical
not _only material requirements of the superstructure but also requires smaller size for substructure
and foundations. A clear understanding of the structural behavior of structural behavior under
loads is essential for efficient design.
A bridge superstructure is an integrated body of various members of reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, steel, composite, diaphragms, trusses, arches, etc. Determination of' forces
in theses components is essential for design purposes.
The following types of bridges are discussed as follows.
RC Bridge, Steel Bridge, Arch Bridge, Cable Stayed Bridge and Suspension Bridge
Reinforced concrete bridges:
Steel and concrete are construction materials.
Reinforced concrete bridges possess several advantages over steel bridges.
- adaptability of concrete wide variety of structural shapes
- Low maintenance cost
- Long life and better resistance to temporary overloads and dynamic loads than steel bridges.
- Cast-in-place Reinforced concrete structures are continuous and monolithic, attributes, which
translate into easy construction, low cost and good seismic resistance. They can also be given
the desired aesthetic appearance.
The disadvantage
- large dead weight
- difficulty to widen
- longer construction time
- requires formwork and false work
Bridge live loads occupy partial area of the decks unlike live loads in buildings which is taken
uniformly distributed all over the floor area. Live load on bridges can occupy random positions
both longitudinally and transversely, and this affects the live load shared by various beams. This
aspect of live load distribution is one of the primary concerns in the analysis of bridge decks.

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Influence lines will be used to determine load position for maximum effect and the magnitude of
these effects.
The following RC bridges will be discussed.
1. Slab bridge
2. T-girder bridge
3. Box girder bridge
4. Continuous RC bridge
5. RC rigid frame bridges
Slab Bridge:

Post & raining

Curb

Notch Slab
Edge beam
Typical Cross-section of Slab Bridge
The load carrying mechanism is by plate action, i.e., by bending and twisting due to continuity in
all directions. Application of a load on the portion make the slab deflect into a dish shape locally,
causing a two-dimensional system of bending and twisting moments, the mechanism through
which the load is transferred to the adjacent elements of the deck, which are less severely loaded.
Where: Z is the downward deflection of the plate
q is intensity of uniform load
D is flexural rigidity of tile plate
In the absence of closed form solution to the above equation, approximate methods are developed.
One method is the method of influence surfaces, which uses design charts. These charts have been
prepared by Pucher or slabs of various shapes and support conditions (1964), and by Rusch and
Heregnroder (1961) and Dalas and Hanuska (1964) for simply supported skew slabs. Grillage
method is also used for analysis and softwares are available for this. Another method that

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AASHTO recommends is the Strip Method.

Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’
Load distributions:
The equivalent width of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with one lane, i.e.,
two lines of wheels, loaded shall be determined as:

E  250  0.42 L1W1

The equivalent width, E of longitudinal strips per lane for both shear and moment with more than
one lane loaded shall be determined as:
W
E  2100  0.12 L1W1 
NL
Where: E = equivalent width (mm)
L1 = modified span length taken  of the actual span or 18,000 (mm)
W1 = modified edge-to-edge width of bridge taken to be  of the actual width or 18,000
mm for multilane loading, or 9,000 mm for single-lane loading (mm)
W = physical edge-to-edge width of bridge (mm)
NL = number of design lanes as specified
Where decks span primarily in the direction of traffic, the effective width of a strip, with or without
an edge beam, shall be taken as the sum of the distance between the edge of the deck and the inside
face of the barrier, plus 300 mm, plus one-half of the strip width.
Section analysis:
Rectangular stress block is used for determination of section capacity.
Remember inserting equations
Limits for reinforcement:
Maximum reinforcement c/de ratio and minimum reinforcement 0.03*fc’/fy
T-girder Bridge:
Design of T- girder bridges consists of deck slab analysis and design, and the T-girder analysis
and design.
Structural analysis of the deck slab involves taking a continuous strip perpendicular to the girders
(AASHTO Art.9.6.1) and analyzing by moment distribution or using design aid given by
AASHTO, ILS for critical position of loads. Extreme positive moment at any point will be taken

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to apply to all positive moment regions (Art 4.6.2.1.1). The width of equivalent interior transverse
strip over which the wheel loads can be considered distributed longitudinally in cast - in - place
concrete decks is given as [Table Art. 4.6.2. I .3-1]
 overhang, 11401-0.83lX
 positive moment, 660+0.55S
 negative moment, 1220+0.25S
Where X is the distance from the wheel load to centerline of support and S is the spacing of' the
T-beams.
In the design of overhang deck slab design forces acting on the post and railings or barrier should
be considered.
Depth Determination:
AASHTO Recommendations’
Load Distribution Factors:
 bridges usually have more than one girder
 So we have to distribute lane load from the deck
 Two main methods
 1. Using ASTHO’s table
 gives more an approximate (conservative) value
 no need to consider multiple presence factor
 Refined analysis
 Using finite element method
 need to consider multiple presence factor
 DFS are different for different superstructures
 DFs are different for interior and exterior girders
 Are determined for one lane loaded and two or more lanes loaded
 Then the governing one is to be used
 Moment and Shear in a typical Girder
At any section, if not using AASHTOs GDF
MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM+Mlane)*m
VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM+Vlane)*m
At any section, using AASHTOs GDF

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MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM + Mlane)

VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM + Vlane)
Design Consideration:
The structural behavior of box girders is similar to T-beams. Box girders are essentially T-beams
with transverse bottom flange resulting in a closed, torsionally stiff multi-cell configuration.
The interior webs resist shear and often only a small portion of girder moments. Consequently they
are usually thinner than the webs of T-beams. This is so because, in the case of continuous T-
beams, the webs must resist the negative girder moments as well as all the shear, and contain all
the reinforcement for positive moments.
The bottom slab (soffit) contains reinforcement for the positive moment and also acts as a
compression flange in the negative moment regions of continuous spans. The bottom slab also
affords a superstructure considerably thinner than a T- beam bridge of the same span and permits
even longer spans to be built.

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