CHAPTER 3: BRIDGE LOADING AND DISTRIBUTION OF LOADS

3.1 DEAD LOADS

Permanent loads are those that remain on the bridge for an extended period of time, perhaps
for the entire service life. Permanent loads consist of dead loads and earth loads. Dead load
shall include the weight of all components of the structure, appurtenances and utilities attached
thereto, earth cover, wearing surface, future overlays, and planned widening. Such loads
include:

• Dead load of structural components and nonstructural attachments (DC)

• Dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities (DW)
• Dead load of earth fill (vertical pressure) (EV)
• Horizontal Earth pressure load (EH)
• Earth surcharge load (ES)
• Locked-in erection stresses (EL)
• Downdrag (DD)

The two letter abbreviations are those used by ERA design manual and are also used in
subsequent discussions and examples.

In the absence of more precise information, the densities, specified in Table 3.1, shall be used
for dead loads. The table below provides traditionally used values of densities.

Table 3.1 Densities and Force Effects of Different Materials

MATERIAL DENSITY (kg/m3) Force effect (kN/m3)

Bituminous Wearing Surfaces 2250 22.5
Cast Iron 7200 72
Cinder (volcanic stone) Filling 960 9.6
Compacted Sand, silt, or Clay 1925 19.3
Concrete Normal 2400 24
Loose Sand, Silt, or Gravel 1800 18
Soft Clay 1700 17
Rolled Gravel or Ballast 2250 22.5
Steel 7850 79
Stone Masonry 2725 27.3
Wood Hard 960 9.6
Soft 800 8
Water Fresh 1000 10
3.2 VEHICULAR LIVE LOAD

Although the automobile is the most common vehicular live load on most bridges, the truck
causes the critical load effects. In a sense, cars and busses are considered to be lighter to exert
a live load as heavily a truck could do so. More precisely, the load effects of the car traffic
compared to the effect of truck traffic are negligible. Therefore, the ERA design loads attempt
to model the truck traffic that is highly variable, dynamic, and may occur independent of, or in
unison with, other truck loads. The principal load effect is the gravity load of the truck, but
other effects are significant and must be considered. Such effects include impact (dynamic
effects), braking forces, centrifugal forces, and the effects of other trucks simultaneously
present.

Lanes of a bridge

Two terms are used in the lane design of a bridge:

• Traffic lane
• Design lane

The traffic lane is the number of lanes of traffic that the traffic engineer plans to route across
the bridge. A lane width is associated with a traffic lane and is typically 3600 mm. The design
lane is the lane designation used by the bridge engineer for live-load placement. The design
lane width and location may or may not be the same as the traffic lane. Here ERA design
manual uses a 3000-mm design lane, and the vehicle is to be positioned within that lane for
extreme effect.

Number of Design Lanes

Generally, the number of design lanes should be determined by taking the integer part of the
ratio w/3000, where w is the clear roadway width in mm between curbs and/or barriers. In
cases where the traffic lanes are less than 3.0 m wide, the number of design lanes shall be equal
to the number of traffic lanes, and the width of the design lane shall be taken as the width of
the traffic lane.

Design Vehicles
The live load models as given by ERA design manual consists of three distinctly different loads.
They are,
• Design truck load
• Design tandem load
• Design lane load
Design truck

The weights and spacing of axles and wheels for the design truck given in Figure 3-1.

Plan of Design Truck Load

showing tire contact areas

4.3 m

4.3 –9.0 m

1.8 m
3.000 mm

Figure 3-1 Characteristics of the Design Truck

From the given diagram above, it can be understood that the front axle load of 35kN is spaced
at a distance of 4.3 meters from the middle axle of 145kN load. The rear trailer axle is also
145kN and is positioned at a variable distance ranging between 4.3m and 9m with the middle
axle. The variable range means that the spacing used should cause critical load effect. The long
spacing typically only controls where the front and rear portions of the truck may be positioned
in adjacent structurally continuous spans such as for continuous short-span bridges. (The design
truck is the same configuration that has been used by AASHTO (2002) Standard Specifications
since 1944 and is commonly referred to as HS20. The H denotes highway, the S denotes
semitrailer, and the 20 is the weight of the tractor in tons.) A dynamic load allowance shall be
considered as specified in a following subchapter.

Design Tandem

The second configuration is the design tandem load, the spacing and loading of which is
illustrated in the figure 3-2. The design tandem used for Strategic Bridges consists of a pair of
110 kN axles spaced 1.2 m apart. The transverse spacing of wheels shall be taken as 1.8 m. A
dynamic load allowance shall be considered as specified in a following subchapter.
 110 kN

1.2 m

110 kN

1.8 m

Figure 3-2 Design Tandem Load

Design Lane Load

The third load is the design lane load. The design lane load shall consist of a load of 9.3 KN/m,
uniformly distributed in the longitudinal direction. Transversely, the design lane load shall be
assumed to be uniformly distributed over a 3.0-m width. The force effects from the design
lane load shall not be subject to a dynamic load allowance. The load effects of the design truck
and the design tandem must each separately be superimposed with the load effects of the design
lane load.

Multiple Presence of Live Load

Trucks will be present in adjacent lanes on roadways with multiple design lanes, but it is
unlikely that three adjacent lanes will be loaded simultaneously with the heavy loads.
Therefore, some adjustments in the design loads are necessary. The ERA design manual
specifies about the factor as multiple presence factor (m-factor). These factors should not be
applied in situations where these factors have been implicitly included, such as in the load
distribution factors outlined in ERA design manual. If statical distribution factors are used or
if the analysis is based on refined methods, then the multiple presence factors apply. In addition,
these factors apply in the design of bearings and abutments for the braking forces defined later.
Lastly, the multiple presence factors should not be used in the case of the fatigue limit state.

Number of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3

Multiple Presence Factors “m” 1.20 1.0 0.85 0.65
Table 3.2 Multiple Presence Factors "m"

ERA design manual explains the use of multiple presence factors for determining extreme live
load force effects by considering each possible combination of number of loaded lanes
multiplied by the corresponding multiple presence factor (m-factor) specified in Table 3.2.

If a component supported a sidewalk and one lane, it would be investigated for the vehicular
live load alone with m = 1.20, and for the pedestrian loads combined with the vehicular live
load with m = 1.0. If a component supported a sidewalk and two lanes of vehicular live load,
it would be investigated for:

• One lane of vehicular live load, m = 1.20;

• The greater of the more significant lane of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads or
two lanes of vehicular live load, m = 1.0 applied to the governing case; and

• Two lanes of vehicular live load and the pedestrian loads, m = 0.85.

The multiple presence factor of 1.20 for a single lane does not apply to the pedestrian loads.
Therefore, the case of the pedestrian loads without the vehicular live load is a subset of the
second bulleted item.

The multiple presence factors in Table 3.2 were developed based on an ADTT (Average Daily
Truck Traffic) of 5000 trucks in one direction. The force effect resulting from the appropriate
number of lanes shall be reduced for sites with lower ADTT as follows:

• If 100  ADTT  1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall be used; and

• If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be used.

This adjustment is based on the reduced probability of attaining the design event during a 75-
year design life with reduced truck volume.

Except as specified in following subchapters on the application of Design Vehicular Live Loads
and Fatigue Loads, the spacing between the two 145 kN axles shall be varied between 4.3 and
9.0 m to produce extreme force effects.

Dynamic Effect

The roadway surface is not perfectly smooth; thus, the vehicle suspension must react to
roadway roughness by compression and extension of the suspension system. This oscillation
creates axle forces that could exceed the static weight during the movement of vehicle over the
bridge. Although commonly called impact, this phenomenon is more precisely referred to as
dynamic loading. According to ERA design manual, dynamic effects due to moving vehicles
shall be attributed to two sources:

• Hammering effect is the dynamic response of the wheel assembly to riding surface
discontinuities, such as deck joints, cracks, potholes, and delamination, and
• Dynamic response of the bridge as a whole to passing vehicles, which shall be due to long
undulations in the roadway pavement, such as those caused by settlement of fill, or to
resonant excitation as a result of similar frequencies of vibration between bridge and
vehicle. The frequency of vibration of any bridge should not exceed 3 Hz.

DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE (IM = VEHICULAR DYNAMIC LOAD ALLOWANCE)

There have been numerous experimental and analytical studies to determine the dynamic load
effect. One such study is the increase in the deflection due to dynamic effect when compared
to that due to static load only. For example, if Ddyn is the maximum deflection due to dynamic
effect alone and Dstat is the maximum deflection due to static effect alone, then the incremental
effect of loading due to dynamic effect may be said as a percentage increase over the static load
as

Dynamic load allowance (IM) = (Ddyn/ Dstat)*100

It is important to observe that this ratio varies significantly with different vehicle positions.
Hence considering the maximum allowance values possible is best suited for design.

ERA design manual specifications:

The static effects of the design truck or tandem, other than centrifugal and braking forces, shall
be increased by the percentage specified in Table 3.3 for dynamic load allowance.

The factor to be applied to the static load shall be taken as: (1 + IM/100).

The dynamic load allowance shall not be applied to pedestrian loads or to the design lane
load.

Component IM
Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%
All Other Components
• Fatigue and Fracture Limit State 15%
• All Other Limit States 33%
Table 3.3 Dynamic Load Allowance, IM

Dynamic load allowance need not be applied to:

• Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the superstructure, and

• Foundation components that are entirely below ground level.

The dynamic load allowance shall be reduced for components, other than joints, if justified by
sufficient evidence, but in no case shall the dynamic load allowance used in design be less than
50% of IM in the table above.

BURIED COMPONENTS

The dynamic load allowance for culverts and other buried structures, in %, shall be taken as:

IM = 33 (1.0 - 4.l*10-4 DE) > 0%

Where:

DE = the minimum depth of earth cover above the structure (mm)

WOOD COMPONENTS

Wood structures are known to experience reduced dynamic wheel load effects due to internal
friction between the components and the damping characteristics of wood.

For wood bridges and wood components of bridges, the dynamic load allowance values
specified in table of dynamic load allowance shall be reduced to 70  of the values specified
therein for IM.

TIRE CONTACT AREA

The tire contact area of a wheel consisting of one or two tires shall be assumed to be a single
rectangle, whose width is 500 mm and whose length () in mm shall be taken as:

 = 2.28 x 10-3  (1 + IM/100) P (3.1)

where:  = load factor for the limit state under consideration.
IM = dynamic load allowance percent
P = 72.5 kN for the design truck and 55 kN for the design tandem

The tire pressure shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed over the contact area. The tire
pressure shall be assumed to be distributed as follows:
• On continuous surfaces, uniformly over the specified contact area, and
• On interrupted surfaces, uniformly over the actual contact area within the footprint with the
pressure increased in the ratio of the specified to actual contact areas.

However, for all concrete decks including composite decks the length 200 mm shall be used
in Equation 3.1.
APPLICATION OF DESIGN VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS

The effects of an axle sequence and the lane load are superimposed in order to obtain
extreme values.
Unless otherwise specified, the extreme force effect shall be taken as the larger of the
following:

• The effect of the design tandem combined with the effect of the design lane load, or

• The effect of one design truck with the variable axle spacing combined with the effect of
the design lane load, and

• For both negative and positive moment between points of contraflexure under a uniform
load on all spans, and reaction at interior piers only, 90% of the effect of two design trucks
spaced a minimum of 15.0 m between the lead axle of one truck and the rear axle of the
other truck, combined with 90% of the effect of the design lane load. The distance between
the 145 kN axles of each truck shall be taken as 4.3 m.

The design truck or tandem shall be positioned transversely such that the center of any wheel
load is not closer than:

• For the design of the deck overhang - 300 mm from the face of the curb or railing, and

• For the design of all other components - 600 mm from the edge of the design lane.

3.3 PEDESTRIAN LOADS

A pedestrian load of 4.0 kPa (kN/m2) shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load.

The provisions of above subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the pedestrian
loads in combination with the vehicular live load is helpful for application together with other
loads. Usually the 4 kN/m2 load will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid accidents for bridges
wider than 2.4 m, provision shall be made for an additional axle load.

Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by maintenance
and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the design. If unknown, at
least one movable axle load of 70 kN acting together with the pedestrian load shall be applied.
The dynamic load allowance need not be considered for these vehicles.

In half-through-trusses of steel, the compressed top chord of a simple span truss shall be
designed to resist a lateral force of not less than 4.0 kN/m length, considered as a permanent
load for the Strength I Load Combination and factored accordingly.
3.4 CENTRIFUGAL FORCES (CE= VEHICULAR CENTRIFUGAL FORCE)

As a truck moves along a curvilinear path, the change in direction of the velocity causes a
centrifugal acceleration in the radial direction. Because its mass is large compared to the power
available, a truck cannot increase its speed at a rate great enough to impose a significant force
on the bridge. Such a force exerted on the bridge is known as centrifugal force. Centrifugal
acceleration acts in the radial direction.

Centrifugal Acceleration ar = V2/r

Where V = Highway speed of vehicle

r = Radius of curvature

Centrifugal Force = mar

= m. V2/r; (But m = W/g)

= W.V2/(rg)

Where W = Weight of the Vehicle

The position of the centrifugal force is at the center of mass, assumed to be at 1800 mm above
the roadway surface.

According to ERA design manual, centrifugal forces shall be taken as the product of the axle
weights of the design truck or tandem and the factor C, taken as:

C = 4 v2
3 g*R

where: v = highway design speed (m/s)

g = gravitational acceleration: 9.81 (m/s2)

R = radius of curvature of traffic lane (m)

Because the combination of the design truck with the design lane load gives a load
approximately 4/3 of the effect of the design truck considered independently, a 4/3 factor is
used to model the effect of a train of trucks.

Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force, as the spacing of vehicles at high
speed is assumed to be large, resulting in a low density of vehicles following and/or
preceding the design truck.
3.5 BRAKING FORCE (BR= VEHICULAR BRAKING FORCE)

Acceleration is the time derivative of the velocity vector and as such results from either a
change of magnitude or direction of velocity. A truck can increase speed, decrease speed,
and/or change directions as it moves along a curvilinear path. All of these effects require an
acceleration of the vehicle that causes a force between the deck and the truck. A decrease in
speed due to braking can create a significant deceleration that causes large forces on the bridge
in the direction of the truck movement. It is quite probable that all truck operators on a bridge
will observe an event that causes the operators to apply the brakes. Thus, loading of multiple
lanes should be considered in the design. The change in kinetic energy associated with the truck
is completely dissipated by the braking force. The kinetic energy is equated to the work
performed by the braking force.

In ERA design manual, based on energy principles, and assuming uniform deceleration
(retardation), the braking force determined as a fraction "b" of vehicle weight is:

b = v2
2gs

where s = the length of uniform deceleration.

Calculations using a braking length of 122 m and a speed of 90 km/h (25 m/s) yield b = 0.26
for a horizontal force that will act for a period of about 10 seconds. The factor "b" applies to
all lanes in one direction because all vehicles may have reacted within this time frame. Only
the design truck or tandem is to be considered.

Braking forces shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or tandem per
lane placed in all design lanes which are considered to be loaded in accordance with above
subchapter Number of Design Lanes, and which are carrying traffic headed in the same
direction. These forces shall be assumed to act horizontally at the level of the roadway surface
in either longitudinal direction to cause extreme force effects. All design lanes shall be
simultaneously loaded for bridges likely to become one-directional in the future.
3.6 WIND LOAD (WL= WIND ON LIVE LOAD; WS= WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURE)

HORIZONTAL WIND PRESSURE

General

The velocity of the wind varies with the elevation above the ground and the upstream terrain
roughness, and therefore pressure on a structure is also a function of these parameters. If the
terrain is smooth, then the velocity increases more rapidly with elevation. A typical velocity
profile is illustrated in Figure 3.3, where several key parameters are shown. The parameter Vg
is the geotropic velocity or the velocity independent of surface (boundary) effects, δ is the
boundary layer thickness, usually defined as the height where the velocity of 99% of Vg , and
V10 is the reference velocity at 10 m. Traditionally, this is the height at which wind velocity
data is recorded. Since its introduction in 1916, the velocity profile has been modeled with a
power function of the form

Wind load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed on the area exposed to the wind. The
exposed area shall be the sum of areas of all components, including floor system and railing,
as seen in elevation taken perpendicular to the assumed wind direction. This direction shall be
varied to determine the extreme force effect in the structure or in its components. Areas that do
not contribute to the extreme force effect under consideration shall be neglected in the analysis.

Pressures specified herein shall be assumed to be caused by a base design wind velocity, VB,
of 160 km/h (= 45 m/s).

For bridges or parts of bridges more than 10 m above low ground or water level, the design
wind velocity, VDZ (km/h), at design elevation, z, should be adjusted according to:

V10 Z 
VDZ = 2.5 * Vo   In  
VB  Zo 

where: V10 = wind velocity at 10 m above low ground or above design water level (km/h)

VB = base wind velocity of 160 km/h (45 m/s) at 10 m height, yielding design pressures
specified in following subchapters Wind Pressure on Structures and Vertical
Wind Pressure

Z = height of structure at which wind loads are being calculated as measured from low
ground, or from water level, > 10 m (m)
 Vo = friction velocity, a meteorological wind characteristic taken, as specified in Table
3-4, for various upwind surface characteristics (km/h)

Zo = friction length of upstream fetch, a meteorological wind characteristic taken as

specified in Table 3-4 below (m)

V10 shall be established from:

• Basic Wind Speed charts available from National Meteorological Services Agency for
various recurrence intervals,

• Site-specific wind surveys, or

• In the absence of better criterion, the assumption that V10 = VB =145 km/h (= 40 m/s) shall
be used for small and medium sized bridges.

The following descriptions are for the terms "open country" and "suburban" in Table 3-4:

• Open Country: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having heights generally less than
10 m. This category includes flat open country and grasslands.

• Urban and Suburban: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or other terrain with
numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of single-family or larger dwellings.
Use of this category shall be limited to those areas for which representative terrain prevails
in the upwind direction at least 500 m.

CONDITION OPEN COUNTRY URBAN AND SUBURBAN

Vo (km/h) 13.2 17.6
Zo (m) 70 1000
Table 3-4 Values of Vo and Zo for Various Upstream Surface Conditions

Base design wind velocity varies significantly due to local conditions. For small and/or low
structures, wind usually does not govern. For large and/or tall bridges, however, the local
conditions should be investigated.

Pressures on windward and leeward sides are to be taken simultaneously in the assumed
direction of wind.

Typically, a bridge structure should be examined separately under wind pressures from two or
more different directions in order to ascertain those windward, leeward, and side pressures
producing the most critical loads on the structure.
The suggested wind speed V10 = 40 m/s should be compared with the Ethiopian Building Code
Standard, where V10 = 150 km/h (42 m/s) is used for the highest mountaintops. The National
Atlas of Ethiopia shows that the western parts of the country (Bahar Dar, Nekemte, Gore, Jima,
Awasa and Goba) have a wind speed (V10) that never exceeds 15 knots (equal to 30 m/s or 105
km/h). However, since the National Meteorological Services Agency has collected wind data
only every 4 hours it is not certain that the maximum wind speeds are given at the
meteorological stations. Therefore, it is recommended to make separate observations for large
or wind-sensitive bridges.

Equation 3.2 below is based on boundary layer theory combined with empirical observations
and represents the most recent approach to defining wind speeds for various conditions as used
in meteorology. In the past, an exponential equation was sometimes used to relate wind speed
to heights above 10 m. This formulation was based solely on empirical observations and had
no theoretical basis.


Z 
VDZ = CV10 *   (3.2)
10
The purpose of the term C and exponent "" was to adjust the equation for various upstream
surface conditions, similar to the use of Table 3-4 (further information can be found in Refs.)

Wind Pressure on Structures: WS

For small and medium sized concrete bridges below 50m length the wind load on
structures shall be neglected.

For large and/or light bridges the following shall apply. If justified by local conditions, a
different base design wind velocity shall be selected for load combinations not involving wind
on live load. The direction of the design wind shall be assumed horizontal, unless otherwise
specified in the following subchapter Aero elastic Instability. In the absence of more precise
data, design wind pressure, PD in kPa, shall be determined as:
2
VDZ
2

PD = PB  V DZ
 = PB 25600
 VB 
Where PB = base wind pressure specified in Table 3-5 (kPa):

STRUCTURAL COMPONENT WINDWARD LOAD, kPa LEEWARD LOAD, kPa

Trusses, Columns, and Arches 2.4 1.2
Beams 2.4 Not applicable
Large Flat Surfaces 1.9 Not applicable
Table 3-5 Base Pressures, PB Corresponding to VB = 160 km/h (45 m/s)
The wind loading shall not be taken less than 4.4 kN/m2 in the plane of a windward chord and
2.2 kN/m2 in the plane of a leeward chord on truss and arch components, and not less than
4.4 kN/m2 on beam or girder components.

Wind tunnel tests shall be used to provide more precise estimates of wind pressures. Such
testing should be considered where wind is a major design load.

Where the wind is not taken as normal to the structure, the base wind pressures, PB, for various
angles of wind direction shall be taken as specified in Table 3-6 and shall be applied to a single
place of exposed area. The skew angle shall be taken as measured from a perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis. The wind direction for design shall be that which produces the extreme force
effect on the component under investigation. The transverse and longitudinal pressures shall
be applied simultaneously.

(kPa) Columns and Arches Girders

Skew Angle of Wind, Lateral Longitudinal Lateral Load Longitudinal
Degrees Load Load Load
0 3.6 0 2.4 0
15 3.4 0.6 2.1 0.3
30 3.1 1.3 2.0 0.6
45 2.3 2.0 1.6 0.8
60 1.1 2.4 0.8 0.9
Table 3-6 Base Wind Pressures, PB (kPa) for Various Angles of Attack VB=160 km/h.

For trusses, columns, and arches, the base wind pressures specified in Table 3-6 are the sum of
the pressures applied to both the windward and leeward areas.

The transverse and longitudinal forces to be applied directly to the substructure shall be
calculated from an assumed base wind pressure of 1.9 kPa. For wind directions taken skewed
to the substructure, this force shall be resolved into components perpendicular to the end and
front elevations of the substructure. The component perpendicular to the end elevation shall act
on the exposed substructure area as seen in end elevation, and the component perpendicular to
the front elevation shall act on the exposed areas and shall be applied simultaneously with the
wind loads from the superstructure.

Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL

When vehicles are present, the design wind pressure shall be applied to both structure and
vehicles. Wind pressure on vehicles shall be represented by an interruptible, moving force of
1.5 kN/m acting normal to, and 1.8 m above, the roadway and shall be transmitted to the
structure.

When wind on vehicles is not taken as normal to the structure, the components of normal and
parallel force applied to the live load shall be taken as specified in Table 3-7 with the skew
angle taken as referenced normal to the surface.

Skew Angle (Degrees) Normal Component (kN/m) Parallel Component (kN/m)

0 1.46 0
15 1.28 0.18
30 1.20 0.35
45 0.96 0.47
60 0.50 0.55

Table 3-7 Wind Components on Live Load

Based on practical experience, maximum live loads are not expected to be present on the bridge
when the wind velocity exceeds 90 km/h. The load factor corresponding to the treatment of
wind on structure only in Load Combination Strength III would be (90/145)2*1.4 = 0.54, which
has been rounded to 0.5 in the Strength IV Load Combination. This load factor corresponds to
0.3 in Service 1.

VERTICAL WIND PRESSURE

Unless otherwise determined in following subchapter Aero elastic Instability, a vertical upward
wind force of 1.0 kPa (kN/m2) times the width of the deck, including parapets and sidewalks,
shall be considered a longitudinal line load. This force shall be applied only for large and/or
other than concrete bridges. It shall be applied only for limit states that do not involve wind on
live load, and only when the direction of wind is taken to be perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis of the bridge. This lineal force shall be applied at the windward quarter-point of the deck
width in conjunction with the horizontal wind loads specified in the previous subchapter
Horizontal Wind Pressure.

The intent of this subchapter is to account for the effect resulting from interruption of the
horizontal flow of air by the superstructure. This load is to be applied even to discontinuous
bridge decks, such as grid decks. This load may govern where overturning of the bridge is
investigated.
AERO ELASTIC INSTABILITY

Aero elastic force effects shall be taken into account in the design of bridges and structural
components that are wind-sensitive. All bridges and structural components thereof with a span
length to width or depth ratio exceeding 30.0 shall be deemed wind-sensitive.

Many bridges, decks, or individual structural components have been shown to be aero
elastically insensitive if their length-to-width or length-to-depth ratios are about 30.0, a
somewhat arbitrary value helpful only in identifying likely wind-sensitive cases.

3.7 WATER LOADS (WA= WATER LOAD AND STREAM PRESSURE)

STATIC PRESSURE

Static pressure of water shall be assumed to act perpendicular to the surface that is retaining
the water. Pressure shall be calculated as the product of height of water above the point of
consideration, the density of water, and "g" (the acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m/s2).

p =  * g * z * 10-9

where p = static pressure (Mpa)

 = density of water (kg/m3)

z = height of water above the point of consideration (mm)

g = Gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

STREAM PRESSURE

Longitudinal

For the purpose of this chapter, the longitudinal direction refers to the major axis of a
substructure unit.

The pressure of flowing water acting in the longitudinal direction of substructures shall be
taken as:

p = 5.14*10-4 CDV2 (3.3)

where: p = pressure of flowing water (MPa)

CD = drag coefficient for piers as specified in Table 3-8

 V = design velocity in m/s of water for the design flood in strength and service limit
states and for the check flood in the extreme event limit state (see ERA Drainage Design
Manual-2001, Chapter 5: Hydrology).

Type CD
Semicircular-nosed pier 0.7
Square-ended pier 1.4
Debris lodged against the pier 1.4
Wedged-nosed pier with nose angle 90o or less 0.8
Table 3-8 Drag Coefficient

The longitudinal drag force shall be taken as the product of longitudinal stream pressure and
the projected surface exposed thereto.

Floating logs, roots, and other debris may accumulate at piers and, by blocking parts of the
waterway, increase stream pressure load on the pier. Such accumulation is a function of the
availability of such debris and level of maintenance efforts by which it is removed. It shall be
accounted for by the judicious increase in both the exposed surface and the velocity of water.

The following provision (Ref. 2) shall be used as guidance in the absence of site-specific
criteria:

• Where a significant amount of driftwood is carried, water pressure shall also be allowed
for on a driftwood raft lodged against the pier. The size of the raft is a matter of judgment,
but as a guide, Dimension A in Figure 3-3 should be half the water depth, but not greater
than 3m. Dimension B should be half the sum of adjacent span lengths, but no greater than
14 m. Pressure shall be calculated using Equation 3.3, with CD = 0.5.

Figure 3-3 Debris Raft for Pier Design

Lateral

The lateral, uniformly distributed pressure on substructure due to water flowing at an angle,
, to the longitudinal axis of the pier (see Figure 3-4) shall be taken as:
PL = 5.14 x 10-4CLV2

where: PL = lateral pressure (MPa)

CL = lateral drag coefficient specified in Table 3-9 below.

Figure 3-4 Plan View of Pier Showing Stream Flow Pressure

Angle, , between direction of flow and CL

longitudinal axis of the pier
0o 0.0
1o 0.5
10o 0.7
20o 0.9
30o 1.0
(Ref 15)
Table 3-9 Lateral Drag Coefficient

The lateral drag force shall be taken as the product of the lateral stream pressure and the
surface exposed thereto.

3.8 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS (EQ= EARTHQUAKE)

GENERAL

Earthquake loads shall be taken to be horizontal force effects determined on the basis of the
elastic response coefficient, Csm and the equivalent weight of the superstructure, adjusted by
the response modification factor, R.

ACCELERATION COEFFICIENT

The coefficient, "A", to be used in the application of these provisions shall be determined from
the contour map of Ethiopia in Figure 3-5. Linear interpolation shall be used for sites located
between contour lines or between a contour line and a local maximum or minimum.

IMPORTANCE CATEGORIES

The bridges within Zone 4 (mainly Rift Valley) shall be classified into one of three importance
categories as follows:

• Critical bridges,
• Essential bridges, or

• Other bridges.

The basis of classification shall include social/survival and security/defense requirements. In

classifying a bridge, consideration should be given to possible future changes in conditions and
requirements.

Figure 3.5. Earthquake zones

Essential bridges are generally those that should, as a minimum, be open to emergency
vehicles and for security/defense purposes immediately after the design earthquake, i.e., a 475-
year return period event. However, some bridges must remain open to all traffic after the design
earthquake and be usable by emergency vehicles and for security/defense purposes
immediately after a large earthquake, e.g., a 2500 year return period event. These bridges
should be regarded as critical structures.
ACCELERATION COEFFICIENTS

Each bridge shall be assigned to one of the seismic zones in accordance with Table 3-10
below:

EBCS zone from Figure 3-9 Acceleration Coefficient

1 A  0.03
2 0.03 < A  0.05
3 0.05 < A  0.07
4 0.07 < A  0.10

Table 3-10 Seismic Zones

SITE EFFECTS: SOIL PROFILES

Site effects shall be included in the determination of seismic loads for bridges. Site effects on
structural response are due to the soil conditions. Four soil profiles are used in these
Specifications to define a site coefficient used to modify the acceleration coefficient.

The site coefficient, S, is used to include the effect of site conditions on the elastic seismic
response coefficient as specified in the following subchapter.

The site coefficient, S, specified in Table 3-11 (below), shall be based upon soil profile types
defined below.

Site Soil Profile Type

Coefficient I II III IV
S 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0
Table 3-11 Site Coefficients

In locations where the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to determine the soil
profile type, or where the profile does not fit any of the four types, the site coefficient for Soil
Profile Type II shall be used.

A soil profile shall be taken as Type I if composed of rock of any description, either shale-like
or crystalline in nature, or stiff soils where the soil depth is less than 60 m, and the soil types
overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays. These materials shall be
characterized by a shear wave velocity greater than 765 m/s.

A profile with stiff cohesive or deep cohesionless soils where the soil depth exceeds 60 m and
the soil types overlying the rock are stable deposits of sands, gravels, or stiff clays shall be
taken as Type II.
A profile with soft to medium-stiff clays and sands, characterized by 9 m or more of soft to
medium-stiff clays with or without intervening layers of sand or other cohesionless soils shall
be taken as Type III.

A profile with soft clays or silts greater than 12 m in depth shall be taken as Type IV. These
materials shall be characterized by a shear wave velocity of less than 152 m/s and might include
loose natural deposits or manmade, nonengineered fill.

ELASTIC SEISMIC RESPONSE COEFFICIENT

Unless specified otherwise as exceptions in this subchapter, the elastic seismic response
coefficient, Csm, for the mth mode of vibration shall be taken as:

1.2AS
Csm =  2.5A
Tm 2 / 3

where:- Tm = period of vibration of the mth mode (s)

A = acceleration coefficient specified in Table 3-10

S = site coefficient specified in Table 3-11

The determination of the period of vibration, Tm, should be based on the nominal, unfactored
mass of the component or structure.

The elastic seismic response coefficient shall be normalized using the input ground acceleration
"A” and the result plotted against the period of vibration. Such a plot is given in Figure 3-6 for
different soil profiles, based on 5 % damping.

Figure 3-6 Seismic Response Coefficients, Csm for Various Soil Profiles,
Normalized with Respect to Acceleration Coefficient "A" (Csm on the left axis)
Exceptions to the application of Equation for Csm are as follows:

• For bridges on soil profiles III or IV, Csm need not exceed 2.0*A.

• For soil profiles III and IV, and for modes other than the fundamental mode, that have
periods less than 0.3 s, Csm shall be taken as:

Csm = A (0.8 + 4.0*Tm)

• If the period of vibration for any mode exceeds 4.0 s, the value of Csm for that mode shall
be taken as:

Csm = 3AS

Tm4/3

RESPONSE MODIFICATION FACTORS

Except as noted herein, seismic design force effects for substructures and the connections
between parts of structures shall be determined by dividing the force effects resulting from
elastic analysis by the appropriate response modification factor, R, as specified in Tables 3-
12 and 3-13, respectively.

Substructure Importance Category

Critical Essential Other
Wall-type piers – larger dimension 1.5 1.5 2.0
Reinforced concrete pile bents
• Vertical piles only 1.5 2.0 3.0
• With battered piles 1.5 1.5 2.0
Single columns 1.5 2.0 3.0
Steel or composite steel and concrete pile bents
• Vertical pile only
• With battered piles 1.5 3.5 5.0
1.5 2.0 3.0
Multiple column bents 1.5 3.5 5.0
Table 3-12 Response Modification R-Factors for Substructures

Connection All Importance Categories

Superstructure to abutment 0.8
Expansion joints within a span of the superstructure 0.8
Columns, piers, or pile bents to cap beam or superstructure 1.0
Columns or piers to foundations 1.0

Table 3-13 Response Modification R-Factors for Connections

ANALYSIS FOR EARTHQUAKE LOADS

General

Bridges in Seismic Zone 1-3 need not be analyzed for seismic loads, regardless of their
importance and geometry.

Single-Span Bridges

Seismic analysis is not required for single-span bridges, regardless of seismic zone.

Multispan Bridges

For multispan structures, the minimum analysis requirements shall be as specified below:

Seismic Single-Span Multispan Bridges

Zone Bridges Other Bridges Essential Bridges Critical Bridges
Regular Irregular Regular Irregular Regular Irregular
1-3 No Seismic Analysis * * * * * *
4 Seismic Analysis SM/UL SM SM/UL MM MM MM

Table 3-14 Minimum Analysis Requirements for Seismic Effects

in which:

* = no seismic analysis required (Zone 1-3)

UL = uniform load elastic method

SM = single-mode elastic method

MM = multimode elastic method

3.9 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS

GENERAL

The total factored force effect: Q = ii Qi ----------- Equation 3.4

where:

i= load modifier (a factor relating to ductility, redundancy and operational

importance)

Qi = force effects from loads specified herein

i = load factors
Ductility, redundancy, and operational importance are significant aspects affecting the margin
of safety of bridges. Whereas the first two directly relate to physical strength, the last concerns
the consequences of the bridge being out of service.

DUCTILITY

The response of structural components or connections beyond the elastic limit can be
characterized by either brittle or ductile behavior. Under repeated seismic loading, large
reversed cycles of inelastic deformation dissipate energy and have a beneficial effect on
structural survival.

If, by means of confinement or other measures, a structural component or connection made of

brittle materials can sustain inelastic deformations without significant loss of load-carrying
capacity, this component can be considered ductile. Such ductile performance shall be verified
by testing.

The structural system of a bridge shall be proportioned and detailed to ensure the development
of significant and visible inelastic deformations at the strength and extreme event limit states
prior to failure.

For the strength limit state, the ductility factor

D  1.05 for non-ductile components and connections

D = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with these Specifications

D ≤ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing

measures have been specified beyond those required by these Specifications

For all other limit states:

D = 1.00

REDUNDANCY

Main elements and components whose failure is expected to cause the collapse of the bridge
shall be designated as failure-critical and the associated structural system as non-redundant.
Alternatively, failure-critical members in tension shall be designated fracture-critical.

Those elements and components whose failure is not expected to cause collapse of the bridge
shall be designated as non-failure-critical and the associated structural system as redundant.

For the strength limit state:

 R  1.05 for non-redundant members

= 1.00 for conventional levels of redundancy

 0.95 for exceptional levels of redundancy

For all other limit states:

R = 1.00

For each load combination and limit state under consideration, member redundancy
classification (redundant or non-redundant) should be based upon the member contribution to
the bridge safety.

OPERATIONAL IMPORTANCE

This definition shall apply to the strength and extreme event limit states only. Some bridges
or structural components and connections shall be declared to be of operational importance.

Such classification should be based on social/survival and/or security/defense requirements.

Three levels of importance are specified with respect to seismic design: "critical," "essential,"
and "other." Bridges classified as "critical" or "essential" should be considered of "operational
importance."

For the strength limit state:

l  1.05 for important bridges

= 1.00 for typical bridges

 0.95 for relatively less important bridges

For all other limit states:

l = 1.00

3.10 LIMIT STATES

STRENGTH LIMIT STATE

The strength limit state shall be taken to ensure that strength and stability, both local and global,
are provided to resist the specified statistically significant load combinations that a bridge is
expected to experience in its design life.

Extensive distress and structural damage may occur under strength limit state, but overall
structural integrity is expected to be maintained.
EXTREME EVENT LIMIT STATES

The extreme event limit state shall be taken to ensure the structural survival of a bridge during
a major earthquake or flood, possibly under scoured conditions.

Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique occurrences whose return period shall
be significantly greater than the design life of the bridge.

SERVICE LIMIT STATE

The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress, deformation, and crack width
under regular service conditions. The service limit state provides certain experience related
provisions that cannot always be derived solely from strength or statistical considerations.

FATIGUE AND FRACTURE LIMIT STATE

The fatigue limit state shall be taken as restrictions on stress range as a result of a single design
truck occurring at the number of expected stress range cycles.

The fatigue limit state is intended to limit crack growth under repetitive loads to prevent
fracture during the design life of the bridge.

The fracture limit state shall be taken as a set of material toughness requirements of the
Technical Specifications.

Limit States

STRENGTH I Basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of the bridge without wind.

STRENGTH II Load combination relating to the use of the bridge by ERA-specified special design or
permit vehicles, without wind.
STRENGTH III Load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind velocity exceeding 90 km/h.

STRENGTH IV Load combination relating to very high dead load to live load force effect ratios.

STRENGTH V Load combination relating to normal vehicular use of the bridge with wind of 90 km/h
(25 m/s) velocity
EXTREME Load combination including earthquake
EVENT
SERVICE I Load combination relating to the normal operational use of the bridge with a 90 km/h
(25 m/s) wind and all loads taken at their nominal values. Also related to deflection
control in buried metal structures, tunnel liner plate, and thermoplastic pipe and to
control crack width in reinforced concrete structures. This load combination should also
be used for the investigation of slope stability.
Compression in prestressed concrete components is investigated using this load
combination. Service III is used to investigate tensile stresses in prestressed concrete
components.
SERVICE II Load combination intended to control yielding of steel structures and slip of slip
critical connections due to vehicular live load.
 This load combination corresponds to the overload provision for steel structures, and it
is applicable only to steel structures. From the point of view of load level, this
combination is approximately halfway between that used for Service I and Strength I
Limit States.
SERVICE III Load combination relating only to tension in prestressed concrete structures with the
objective of crack control.
FATIGUE Fatigue and fracture load combination relating to repetitive gravitational vehicular live
load and dynamic responses under a single design truck having a constant axle spacing
of 9.0 m between 145 kN axles.
The load factor, applied to a single design truck, reflects a load level found to be
representative of the truck population with respect to a large number of return cycles of
stresses and to their cumulative effects in steel elements, components, and connections.

The load factors for various loads comprising a design load combination shall be taken as
specified in the following table. All relevant subsets of the load combinations shall be
investigated. For each load combination, every load that is indicated to be taken into account
and that is germane to the component being designed, including all significant effects due to
distortion, shall be multiplied by the appropriate load factor and multiple presence factor, if
applicable. The products shall be summed as specified in Equation 3.4 and multiplied by the
load modifiers.

The factors shall be selected to produce the total extreme factored force effect. For each load
combination, both positive and negative extremes shall be investigated.

In load combinations where one force effect decreases another effect, the minimum value shall
be applied to the load reducing the force effect. For permanent force effects, the load factor
that produces the more critical combination shall be selected from the following table. Where
the permanent load increases the stability or load-carrying capacity of a component or bridge,
the minimum value of the load factor for that permanent load shall also be investigated.

The larger of the two values provided for load factors of Uniform Temperature (TU), Creep
(CR), and Shrinkage (SH) shall be used for deformations and the smaller values for all other
effects.

In the application of permanent loads, force effects for each of the specified six load types
should be computed separately. It is unnecessary to assume that one type of load varies by
span, length, or component within a bridge.
 Load DC LL WA WS WL FR TU TG SE Use one of
Combination DD IM CR these at a
DW CE SH time
EH BR
EV PL
ES LS
Limit State EL EQ CT
STRENGTH 1 p 1.75 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
(Unless noted)
STRENGTH II p 1.35 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH III p - 1.00 1.40 - 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
STRENGTH IV - -
EH, EV, ES, DW p - 1.00 - - 1.00 0.50/1.20 - -
DC ONLY 1.5
STRENGTH V p 1.35 1.00 0.50 1.0 1.00 0.50/1.20 TG SE - -
EXTREME p EQ 1.00 - - 1.00 - - - 1.0 -
EVENT 0
SERVICE I 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.30 1.0 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
SERVICE II 1.00 1.30 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 - - - -
SERVICE III 1.00 0.80 1.00 - - 1.00 1.00/1.20 TG SE - -
FATIGUE
LL, IM and CE - 0.75 - - - - - - - - -
ONLY

Where (see following text):

BR = vehicular braking force FR = friction
CE = vehicular centrifugal force IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
CR = creep LL = vehicular live load
CT = vehicular collision force LS = live load surcharge
DC = dead load of structural components PL = pedestrian live load
DD = downdrag SE = settlement
DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and utilities SH = shrinkage
EH = horizontal earth pressure load TG = temperature gradient
EL = accumulated locked-in effects resulting TU = uniform temperature
from the construction process WA = water load and stream pressure
EQ = earthquake load WL = wind on live load
ES = earth surcharge load WS = wind load on structure
EV = vertical pressure from dead load of earth fill

Load Combinations and Load Factors

Consider the investigation of uplift. Where a permanent load produces uplift, that load would
be multiplied by the maximum load factor, regardless of the span in which it is located. If
another permanent load reduces the uplift, it would be multiplied by the minimum load factor,
regardless of the span in which it is located. For example, at Strength I Limit State where the
permanent load reaction is positive and live load can cause a negative reaction, the load
combination would be:

0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM)

If both reactions were negative, the load combination would be:
1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM).
Type of Load Load Factor (p)
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
• Active 1.50 0.90
• At-Rest 1.35 0.90
EL: Locked-in Erection Stresses 1.0 1.0
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
• Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
• Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
• Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
• Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
• Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culvert
• Flexible Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
Load Factors for Permanent Loads, p

For each force effect, both extreme combinations may need to be investigated by applying
either the high or the low load factor as appropriate. The algebraic sums of these products are
the total force effects for which the bridge and its components should be designed.

LOAD FACTORS FOR CONSTRUCTION LOADS

Load factors for the weight of the structure and appurtenances shall not be taken to be less than
1.25.

Unless otherwise specified by ERA, the load factor for construction loads, for equipment and
for dynamic effects shall not be less than 1.5. The load factor for wind shall not be less than
1.25. All other load factors shall be taken as 1.0.

The load factors presented here should not relieve the contractor of responsibility for safety
and damage control during construction.