Heat

State Function Vapor Pressure

Energy
Standard state temperature Equilibrium
Internal energy
Standard state pressure Heat of Vaporization
Kinetic Energy
Standard states matter Phase Diagram
Potential Energy
Enthalpy Solid
Endothermic
Hess’s Law Liquid
Exothermic
Thermochemical Equation Gas
Thermodynamics
Enthalpy of Formation Triple Point
Thermal Equilibrium
Intramolecular forces Critical Point
System
Intermolecular forces Super Critical Fluid
Surroundings
Hydrogen Bonding
Law of Conservation of Energy
Polarization
Heat Capacity
Polarizability
Specific Heat Capacity
First Law of Thermodynamics
Melting
Freezing
Deposition
Sublimation
Evaporation
Condensation
Isomers hydrocarbons sugars fats
structural isomers unsaturated hydrocarbons polymers solution
constitutional isomers saturated hydrocarbons solvent solute
stereo isomers alkanes concentration molarity
racemic mixture alkenes ppm ppb
entantiomers alkynes wt% vol%
geometric isomers aromatic compounds molecular equations
positional isomers alkyls ionic equations
chiral molecules phenyls net ionic equations
chiral centers phenols spectator ion
optical isomers alcohols metathesis reaction
cis esters combination reaction
mer ethers decomposition reaction
trans carbonyl groups displacement reaction
fac aldehydes redox reaction
hydration isomers ketones addition polymerization
ionization isomers carboxylic acids condensation polymerization
coordination isomers acyl chlorides ligand
linkage isomers organic halides donor atom
titration amines unidentate
titrant amides polydentate
primary standard resonance chelate
secondary standard Arrhenius acids/bases coordination number
end point Brönsted/Lowery acids/bases coordination sphere
equivalence point Lewis acids/bases
pH
oxidation numbers
• Significant Figures – start at the left and proceed to the right
1. If the number does not have a decimal point count until there are no
more non zero numbers
2. If the number has a decimal point start counting at the first non-zero
number and continue counting until you run out of decimal places
• Vocabulary
1. Observation 17. Law of Conservation of Mass 33. percent weight
2. Hypothesis 18. Law of Conservation of Energy 34. percent error
3. Experiment 19. Exact numbers 35. percent composition
4. Theory 20. Accuracy 36. percent yield
5. Law 21. Precision 37. %RSD
6. Chemistry 22. compounds 38. limiting reactant
7. Matter 23. molecules 39. Stoichiometry
8. Energy 24. chemical formula 40. Stoichiometric Coefficient
9. Chemical Properties 25. empirical formula 41. Electron Affinity
10. Physical Properties 26. molecular formula 42. Electronegativity
11. Extensive Properties 27. structural formula 43. Covalent Bond
12. Intensive Properties 28. bond line formula 44. Ionic Bond
13. Scientific (natural) law 29. ball and stick model 45. Dipole
14. Anion 30. space filling model 46. London Dispersion Forces
15. Cation 31. mole 47. Resonance
16. Molecular Geometry 32. Electronic Geometry 48. Hybrid orbital
49. area of high electron density
 Table of Common Ions
Common Positive Ions (Cations)
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent
Hydronium H3O+ Magnesium Mg2+ Aluminium Al3+
(or hydrogen) H+ Calcium Ca2+ Antimony III Sb3+
Lithium Li+ Strontium Sr2+ Bismuth III Bi3+
Sodium Na+ Beryllium Be2+
Potassium K+ Manganese II Mn2+
Rubidium Rb+ Barium Ba2+
Cesium Cs+ Zinc Zn2+
Francium Fr+ Cadmium Cd2+
Silver Ag+ Nickel II Ni2+
Ammonium NH4+ Palladium II Pd2+
Thalium Tl+ Platinum II Pt2+
Copper I Cu+ Copper II Cu2+
Mercury II Hg2+
Mercury I Hg22+
Iron II Fe2+ Iron III Fe3+
Cobalt II Co2+ Cobalt III Co3+
Chromium II Cr2+ Chromium III Cr3+
Lead II Pb2+
Tin II Sn2+
 Table of Common Ions
Common Negative Ions (Anions)
Monovalent Divalent Trivalent
Hydride H- Oxide O2- Nitride N3-
Fluoride Fl- Peroxide O22-
Chloride Cl- Sulfide S2-
Bromide Br- Selenide Se2-
Iodide I- Oxalate C2O42-
Hydroxide OH- Chromate CrO42-
Permangante MnO4- Dichromate Cr2O72-
Cyanide CN- Tungstate WO42-
Thiocynate SCN- Molybdate MoO42-
Acetate C 2H 3O 2- tetrathionate S4O62-
Nitrate NO3- Thiosulfate S2O32-
Bisulfite HSO3- Sulfite SO32-
Bisulfate HSO4- Sulfate SO42-
Bicarbonate HCO3- Carbonate CO32-
Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4- Hydrogen phosphate HPO42- Phosphate PO43-
Nitrite NO2-
Amide NH2-
Hypochlorite ClO-
Chlorite ClO2-
Chlorate ClO3-
Perchlorate ClO4-
Ion/Molecule Name Name as a Ligand

NH3 ammonia ammine

CO carbon monoxide carbonyl

Cl- chloride Chloro

CN- cyanide cyano

F- fluoride fluoro

OH- hydroxide hydroxo

NO nitrogen monoxide nitrosyl

NO2- nitrite nitro

PH3 phosphine phosphine

Standard P  1.00000 atm or 101.3 kPa  n 2a 
2 
Standard T  273.15 K or 0.00oC P + V  nb  nRT
 V 
K = 273 + oC
1 mm Hg = 1 torr 760 torr = 1 atm

The standard molar volume is 22.4 L at STP Variable Cond. 1 Cond. 2

P (atm)
PV = nRT V (L)
N (moles)
R = 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1
R (L atm mol-1 K-1) 0.08206 0.08206

Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + ..... T (K)

At low temperatures and high pressures real gases do not behave ideally.
The reasons for the deviations from ideality are:
1. The molecules are very close to one another, thus their volume
is important.
2. The molecular interactions also become important.
 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
• The basic assumptions of kinetic-molecular theory are:
• Postulate 1
– Gases consist of discrete molecules that are relatively far apart.
– Gases have few intermolecular attractions.
– The volume of individual molecules is very small compared to the gas’s volume.
• Proof - Gases are easily compressible.

• Postulate 2
– Gas molecules are in constant, random, straight line motion with varying velocities.
• Proof - Brownian motion displays molecular motion.

• Postulate 3
– Gas molecules have elastic collisions with themselves and the container.
– Total energy is conserved during a collision.
• Proof - A sealed, confined gas exhibits no pressure drop over time.

• Postulate 4
– The kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature.
– The average kinetic energies of molecules of different gases are equal at a given
temperature.
• Proof - Brownian motion increases as temperature increases.
 ∆H = Hfinal - Hinitial
C5 H12( )  8 O 2(g)  5 CO2(g)  6 H 2 O (  )  3523 kJ
1 mole 8 moles 5 moles 6 moles 1 mole
• The stoichiometric coefficients in thermochemical equations must be interpreted as
numbers of moles. 1 mol of C5H12 reacts with 8 mol of O2 to produce 5 mol of CO2, 6
mol of H2O, and releasing 3523 kJ is referred to as one mole of reactions.

∆Horxn =  ∆Hfo (prod) -  ∆Hfo (react)

heat lost or gained by system (Joules)
Specific heat capacity (J/(g∙K) =
mass(grams) DT (Kelvins)
Variable System 1 System 2
q Cp
cP = Tf
mTf –Ti) Ti
m
q
heat transfer in heat transfer out
(endothermic), +q (exothermic), -q

SYSTEM

∆E = q + w

w transfer in w transfer out

(+w) (-w)
Carbon Atom Hybridization C uses C forms Example
sp3 tetrahedral 4 sp3 hybrids 4  bonds CH4

sp2 trigonal planar 3 sp2 hybrids & 1p orbital 3  bonds 1  bond C2H4

sp linear 2 sp hybrids & 2 p orbitals 2  bonds 2  bonds C2H2

organic nomenclature and structure
inorganic nomenclature and structure
 Given
or determined Calculate
from balanced stoichiometric from molecular
equation formula or balanced
equation

Molar Mass
mass of moles of
given or calculated from Molar Ratio
molecule periodic table molecule

Avogadro's moles of
density molarity, ppm,
molality, normality, Number element, or
etc. other reactant
or product
Concentration Number of
Vol solution
solution molecules
Molar Mass
Avogadro's
given or calculated from
periodic table Number
These concepts lead to solving
problems determining limiting reactant Number of
Mass of
and percent yield. atoms,
element,
or reactant or molecules
or product of reactant
or product
 Quantum Numbers n and l define the energy of the electron
The principal quantum number has the symbol ~ n which defines the
energy of the shell
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...... “shells”
The angular momentum quantum number has the symbol ~  which defines the
subshells.
 = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .......(n-1)
 = s, p, d, f, g, h, .......(n-1)
The symbol for the magnetic quantum number is m which defines the orbital.
m = -  , (-  + 1), (-  +2), .....0, ......., ( -2), ( -1), 

The last quantum number is the spin quantum number which has the symbol m s which characterizes the single electron.
The spin quantum number only has two possible values. ms = +½ or -½ one spin up ↑ and one spin down ↓
The Nucleus: Electrons:
Build by adding the required number of protons Hund’s Rule states that each orbital will be filled singly
(the atomic number) and neutrons (the mass of the atom) before pairing begins. The singly filled orbitals will have
a parallel spin.

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that paired Fill the electrons in starting with the lowest energy level
electrons in an orbital will have opposite spins. adhering to Hund’s and Pauli’s rules.
 Ionic Polar Covalent Covalent
Determine Inductive effect
Count the number of electrons the element should have
Determine how equally electrons are shared (DEN) >1.7 consider it ionic
Oxidation number Formal charge
Never Have a Full Octet Always Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Exceed a Full Octet

To calculate a formal charge To calculate an oxidation number

1. draw the Lewis dot structure
2. draw circles around each atom and the electrons
associated with it. Remember that formal charges
are associated with covalent bonds and that all
electrons are shared equally.
3. compare to the group number for that atom. If the
number is larger the formal charge is negative,
smaller the formal charge is positive.
1. list all the elements follow with an equal sign
2. follow with the number of atoms of that type in the
molecule
1. follow with a multiplication sign
2. If the element is O follow with a -2
3. If the element is H follow with a +1
4. any other element enter a ?
5. follow with an = sign, do the math
6. draw a total line, then enter the charge on the molecule
7. Do the algebra backwards to solve for ?
VSEPR Theory
Lone pair to lone pair is the strongest repulsion.
2 Lone pair to bonding pair is intermediate repulsion.
3 Bonding pair to bonding pair is weakest repulsion.
• Mnemonic for repulsion strengths
lp/lp > lp/bp > bp/bp
• Lone pair to lone pair repulsion is why bond angles in water are less than 109.5o.
Electronic geometry is determined by the locations of regions of high electron density around the central
atom(s). Electron pairs are not used in the molecular geometry determination just the positions of
the atoms in the molecule are used.
Molecular geometry determined by the arrangement of atoms around the central atom(s).
Summary of Electronic & Molecular Geometries

Regions of High Electron Electronic Geometry Hybridization

Density

2 Linear sp
3 Trigonal planar sp2

4 Tetrahedral sp3

5 Trigonal bipyramidal sp3d

6 Octahedral sp3d2