IRON

Name:Iron Symbol:Fe

Type:Transition Metal Atomic weight: 55.847

Density @ 293 K:7.87 g/cm3 Atomic volume: 7.1 cm3/mol

 Discovered:
Iron has been known since ancient times.
The origin of the chemical symbol Fe is
from the Latin word 'ferrum', meaning
iron. The first iron used by humans is
likely to have been sourced from fallen
meteorites. Most objects that fall to earth
from space are stony, but a small
proportion are "iron meteorites" with iron
contents of over 90 percent.
 Iron
States

State (s, l, g):solid

Melting point: 1808.2 K Boiling point: 3023 K

(1535.1 °C) (2750 °C)
Iron Energies
Specific heat capacity: 0.44 J g-1 K-1 Heat of atomization: 415 kJ mol-1

Heat of fusion: 13.80 kJ mol-1 Heat of vaporization: 349.60 kJ mol-1

1st ionization energy: 759.3 kJ mol-1 2nd ionization energy: 1561.1 kJ mol-1

3rd ionization energy: 2957.3 kJ mol-1 Electron affinity: 15.7 kJ mol-1

Iron Oxidation & Electrons
Shells: 2,8,14,2 Electron configuration: [Ar] 3d6 4s2

Minimum oxidation number: -2 Maximum oxidation number: 6

Min. common oxidation no.: 0 Max. common oxidation no.: 3

Electronegativity (Pauling Scale): 1.9 Polarizability volume: 8.4 Å3

Iron Appearance & Characteristics

Structure: bcc: body- Color: gray

centered cubic

Hardness: 4.0 mohs

Harmful effects: Iron is considered to be non-toxic.

 Characteristics:

Iron is a ductile, gray, relatively soft metal and is

a moderately good conductor of heat and
electricity. It is attracted by magnets and can be
readily magnetized. The pure metal is chemically
very reactive and rusts readily in moist air,
forming red-brown oxides. There are three
allotropic forms of iron, known as alpha,
gamma, and delta. Alpha iron, also known as
ferrite, is the stable form of iron at normal
temperatures.
 Uses:

Iron is the cheapest and most important of all

metals - important in the sense that iron is
overwhelmingly the most commonly used
metal, accounting for 95 percent of worldwide
metal production. Iron is used to manufacture
steel and other alloys important in construction
and manufacturing. Iron is also vital in the
functioning of living organisms, transporting
oxygen in blood via the hemoglobin molecule.
 Iron Reactions
Reaction with air: mild, ⇒ Fe3O4 Reaction with 6 M HCl: vigorous,⇒
H2, FeCl2

Reaction with 15 M HNO3: passivated Reaction with 6 M NaOH:

Iron Compounds
Oxide(s):FeO,Fe2O3 (hema Chloride(s): FeCl2, FeCl3
tite), Fe3O4 (magnetite),

Hydride(s): none
Iron Radius
Atomic radius: 140 pm Ionic radius (1+ ion): pm

Ionic radius (2+ ion): 77 pm Ionic radius (3+ ion): 63 pm

Ionic radius (2- ion): pm Ionic radius (1- ion): pm

Iron Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: 80.4 W m-1 K-1 Electrical conductivity: 0.112 x 106 S cm-1
Iron Abundance & Isotopes
Abundance earth's crust: 5.6 % weight, 2.1 % by moles

Abundance solar system: 1000 parts per million by

weight, 30 parts per million by moles
Cost, pure: $7.2 per 100g

Cost, bulk: $0.02 per 100g

 Source:
Iron is not found free in nature but is found in iron ores
such as hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4) and
taconite. Commercially, iron is produced in a furnace at
temperatures of about 2,000 oC by the reduction of
hematite or magnetite with carbon.

Isotopes:
Iron has 24 isotopes whose half-lives are known, with
mass numbers 46 to 69. Of these, four are
stable, 54Fe, 56Fe, 57Fe and 58Fe. Over 91.7% of of
naturally occurring iron is in the form of 56Fe.
Steel
 What is steel?

Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon containing

less than 2% carbon and 1% manganese and
small amounts of silicon, phosphorus, sulphur
and oxygen. Steel is the world's most important
engineering and construction material. It is used
in every aspect of our lives; in cars and
construction products, refrigerators and washing
machines, cargo ships and surgical scalpels.
 How many types of steel are there?

Steel is not a single product. There are more

than 3,500 different grades of steel with many
different physical, chemical, and environmental
properties. Approximately 75% of modern steels
have been developed in the past 20 years. If the
Eiffel Tower were to be rebuilt today, the
engineers would only need one-third of the steel
that was originally used. Modern cars are built
with new steels that are stronger but up to 35%
lighter than in the past.
How much steel is produced in a
year?

World crude steel production

reached 1,689.4 million tonnes
(Mt) for the year 2017.
 Is steel environmentally friendly and sustainable?

Steel is very friendly to the environment. It is

completely recyclable, possesses great durability, and,
compared to other materials, requires relatively low
amounts of energy to produce. Innovative lightweight
steel construction (such as in automobile and rail
vehicle construction) help to save energy and
resources. The steel industry has made immense
efforts to limit environmental pollution in the last
decades. Producing one tonne of steel today requires
just 40% of the energy it did in 1960. Dust emissions
have been reduced by even more.
 Who invented steel?

It is not known who produced the first steel.

Since 200 BC, many cultures have produced
steel in one form or another. A British inventor,
Henry Bessemer, is generally credited with the
invention of the first technique to mass produce
steel in the mid 1850s. Steel is still produced
using technology based on the Bessemer
Process of blowing air through molten pig iron
to oxidise the material and separate impurities.
 Why does steel rust?

Many elements and materials go through chemical

reactions with other elements. When steel comes into
contact with water and oxygen there is a chemical
reaction and the steel begins to revert to its origina
lform-iron oxide. In most modern steel applications this
problem is easily overcome by coating. Many different
coating materials can be applied to steel. Paint is used
to coat cars and enamel is used on refrigerators and
other domestic appliances. In other cases, elements
such as nickel and chromium are added to make
stainless steel, which can help prevent rust.
Stainless
Steel
Stainless steel is not a single material but the name for
a family of corrosion resistant steels. Like many
scientific discoveries the origins of stainless steel lies in
a serendipitous accident. In 1913 Sheffield, England,
Harry Brearley was investigating the development of
new steel alloys for use in gun barrels. He noticed that
some of his samples didn’t rust and were difficult to
etch. These alloys contained around 13% chromium.
Worldwide demand for stainless steel is increasing at a rate of
about 5% per annum. Annual consumption is now well over 20
million tonnes and is rising in areas such as the construction
industry and household appliances. New uses are being
continuously found for the attractive appearance, corrosion
resistance, low maintenance and strength of stainless steel.
Stainless steel is more expensive than standard grades of steel
but it has greater resistance to corrosion, needs low
maintenance and has no need for painting or other protective
coatings. These factors mean stainless steel can be more
economically viable once service life and life-cycle costs are
considered.
 Properties
The advantageous properties of stainless steels can be
seen when compared to standard plain carbon mild
steel. Although stainless steels have a broad range of
properties, in general, when compared with mild steel,
stainless steels have:
~ Higher corrosion resistance
~ Higher cryogenic toughness
~ Higher work hardening rate
~ Higher hot strength
~ Higher ductility
~ Higher strength and hardness
~ A more attractive appearance
~ Lower maintenance
 Corrosion Resistance
All stainless steels are iron-based alloys that
contain a minimum of around 10.5% Chromium.
The Chromium in the alloy forms a self-healing
protective clear oxide layer. This oxide layer
gives stainless steels their corrosion resistance.
The self healing nature of the oxide layer means
the corrosion resistance remains intact
regardless of fabrication methods. Even if the
material surface is cut or damaged, it will self
heal and corrosion resistance will be
maintained.
 Cryogenic (Low Temperature) Resistance
Cryogenic resistance is measured by the ductility or
toughness at sub zero temperatures. At cryogenic
temperatures the tensile strengths of austenitic
stainless steels are substantially higher than at ambient
temperatures. They also maintain excellent toughness.
Ferritic, martensitic and precipitation hardening steels
should not be used at sub-zero temperatures. The
toughness of these grades drops significantly at low
temperatures. In some cases this drop occurs close to
room temperature.
 Work Hardening
Work hardenable grades of stainless steel have the
advantage that significant increases to the strength of
the metal can be achieved simply through cold
working. A combination of cold working and annealing
stages can be employed to give the fabricated
component a specific strength.
A typical example of this is the drawing of wire. Wire to
be used as springs will be work hardened to a particular
tensile strength. If the same wire was to be used as a
bendable tie wire, it would be annealed, resulting in a
softer material.
 Hot Strength
Austenitic grades retain high strength at elevated
temperatures. This is particularly so with grades
containing high levels of chromium and/or high silicon,
nitrogen and rare earth elements (e.g. grade 310 and
S30815). High chromium ferritic grades like 446 can also
show high hot strength.
The high chromium content of stainless steels also helps
to resist scaling at elevated temperatures.
Ductility
Ductility tends to be given by the % elongation during a
tensile test. The elongation for austenitic stainless steels
is quite high. High ductility and high work hardening rates
allows austenitic stainless steels to be formed using
severe processes such as deep drawing.
 High Strength
When compared with mild steels, stainless
steels tend to have higher tensile strength.
The duplex stainless steels have higher
tensile strengths than austenitic steels.
The highest tensile strengths are seen in
the martensitic (431) and precipitation
hardening grades (17-4 PH). These grades
can have strengths double that of TYPES
304 and 316, the most commonly used
stainless steels.
 Magnetic Response
Magnetic response is the attraction of steel
to a magnet. Austenitic grades are
generally not magnetic although a
magnetic response can be induced in the
low austenitic grades by cold working. High
nickel grades like 316 and 310 will remain
non-magnetic even with cold working.
All other grades are magnetic.
 Stainless Steel Families
Although the corrosion resistance of stainless
comes from the presence of Chromium, other
elements are added to enhance other
properties. These elements alter the
microstructure of the steel.
Stainless steels are grouped into families based
on their metallurgical microstructure. The
microstructure may be composed of the stable
phases austenite or ferrite, a “duplex” mix of
these two, martensite or a hardened structure
containing precipitated micro-constituents.
 Austenitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic stainless steels contain a minimum of 16%
chromium and 6% nickel. They range from basic grades like
304 through to super austenitics such as 904L and 6%
Molybdenum grades.
By adding elements such as Molybdenum, Titanium or
Copper, the properties of the steel can be modified.
Austenitic stainless steels are generally non-magnetic. They
are not able to be hardened by heat treatment. Austenitic
stainless steels rapidly work-harden with cold working.
Although they work harden, they are the most readily
formed of the stainless steels.
The principal alloying elements are sometimes reflected in
the name of the steel. A common name for 304 stainless
steel is 18/8, for 18% chromium and 8% nickel.
 Austenitic Stainless Applications
Applications for austenitic stainless steels include:
~ Kitchen sinks
~ Architectural applications such as roofing and
cladding
~ Roofing and gutters
~ Doors and Windows
~ Balustrading
~ Benches and food preparation areas
~ Food processing equipment
~ Heat exchangers
~ Ovens
~ Chemical tanks
 Ferritic Stainless Steels
Ferritic stainless steels include grades like 430 and
contain only chromium as a major alloying element.
The quantity of chromium present ranges from 10.5 to
18%.
They are known for their moderate corrosion resistance
and poor fabrication properties. Fabrication properties
can be improved by alloy modifications and are
satisfactory in grades such as 434and 444. Ferritic
stainless steels cannot be hardened by heat treatment
and are always used in the annealed condition.
Ferritic stainless steels are magnetic. They are also not
susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. Weldability is
acceptable in thin sections but decreases as section
thicknesses increase.
 Ferritic Stainless Applications
Ferritic stainless steels are typically
used in:
~ Vehicle exhausts
~ Fuel lines
~ Cooking utensils
~ Architectural trim
~ Domestic appliances
 Martensitic Stainless Steels
High carbon and lower chromium content
are the distinguishing features of
martensitic stainless steels when
compared with ferritic stainless.
Martensitic stainless steels include 410 and
416. Hardened martensitic steels cannot
be successfully cold formed. They are
magnetic, have moderate corrosion
resistance and poor weldability.
Martensitic Stainless Applications
Martensitic stainless steels are
typically used for:
~ Knife blades
~ Cutlery
~ Surgical instruments
~ Fasteners
~ Shafts
~ Springs
 Duplex Stainless Steels
Duplex stainless steels have high chromium and low
nickel contents. This gives duplex stainless steels
microstructures that include both austenitic and ferritic
phases. They include alloys like 2304 and 2205. These
alloys are so named due to their respective
compositions - 23% chromium, 4% nickel and 22%
chromium, 5% nickel. Most importantly, the corrosion
resistance of duplex steels is equal, or superior to 304
and 316 stainless steel. This is particularly so for
chloride attack.
Duplex grades are readily welded. They also have high
tensile strengths.
 Duplex Stainless Applications
Duplex stainless steels typically find
application in areas like:
~ Heat exchangers
~ Marine applications
~ Desalination plants
~ Food pickling plants
~ Off-shore oil & gas installations
~ Chemical & petrochemical plant
 Grade Selection
The grade selection process for stainless steels is a
compromise between the desired properties of the
finished product.
When selecting a particular grade of stainless steel, it is
essential to consider the primary properties required,
such as corrosion resistance and heat resistance.
Important consideration must also be given to the
secondary properties, like physical and mechanical
properties. These properties will determine other
factors such as the ease of fabrication of any candidate
grades.
If the secondary properties are not adequate, it may
not be possible to viably and economically produce the
required product.
Carbon
Steel
 Carbon Content and Steel Properties
Metallurgists define a high carbon steel as being
iron mixed with over 0.8% carbon but less than
2.11% carbon in its composition. The average
level of carbon found in this metal usually falls
right around the 1.5% mark. High carbon steel
has a reputation for being especially hard, but
the extra carbon also makes it more brittle than
other types of steel. This type of steel is the
most likely to fracture under stress.
 Hardness and Other Advantages
High carbon steel has important
advantages over other materials. This type
of steel is excellent for making cutting tools
or masonry nails. The carbon gives the
steel hardness and strength while being
relatively inexpensive compared to other
hard substances. Manufacturers value high
carbon steel for metal cutting tools or
press machinery that bends and forms
metal parts.
 Brittleness and Other Disadvantages
Some disadvantages also come with the use of
high carbon steel. It is difficult to weld, posing
challenges for manufacturers and fabricators.
The same quality of hardness that makes it
preferred for cutting tools also means it is
brittle, making it prone to fracture or break. It
also doesn't hold up to wear as well as other
types of specialty steel. Tools made with high
carbon steels can become magnetized over
time, attracting unwanted iron dust and
particles.
 Common Uses
High carbon steel remains popular for a wide variety of
uses. This type of steel is preferred in the
manufacturing of tools such as drill bits, knives,
masonry nails, saws, metal cutting tools and
woodcutting tools

Low carbon steels generally contain less than 0.25%

carbon and cannot be strengthened by heat-treating
(strengthening can only be accomplished through cold
working). The low carbon material is relatively soft and
weak, but has outstanding ductility and toughness. In
addition, it is machineable, weld-able, and is relatively
inexpensive to produce.
 Medium carbon steels have carbon
concentrations between 0.25% and
0.60%. These steels may be heat-
treated by austenizing, quenching, and
then tempering to improve their
mechanical properties. On a strength-
to-cost basis, the heat-treated medium
carbon steels provide tremendous
load carrying ability.