Distortions

M. Vedani
Failure and Control of Metals - AY 2020/21
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 Residual stresses and distortions

Distortions are one of the first macroscopic evidence of residual stresses, they can be
defined as: a reversible or irreversible geometrical modification in shape or size

 Reversible distortions are related to heating and cooling cycles that can be
considered as homogeneous in the volume treated
 If no phase modifications is involved when the metal cools back to room
temperature, then the part assumes its original shape and size (no permanent
distortion)
 Irreversible distortions

Irreversible distortions are caused by phase transformations or inhomogeneous

thermal / mechanical cycles in parts.
Common situations in steels can be:
 during cooling (quenching) of steels, the austenite-to-martensite transformation
is associated to a slight expansion of the crystal lattice (permanent size distortion)
 during cooling (quenching) of steels, the inhomogeneous kinetics of austenite-to-
martensite transformation (surface vs. centre) may lead to uncontrolled
distortion (shape distortion)
 during tempering, martensite undergoes stress relieving and transformation into
more stable constituents (size distortion)
Irreversible size distortions, provided they occur uniformly throughout the volume,
can reasonably be predicted and compensated during finishing operations and by
properly setting the tolerances of the parts
 Irreversible distortions (shape)

Irreversible shape distortions can be of greater concern since they are not always
predictable and therefore cannot be compensated

Shape distortions are often generated during the heat treating stage owing to
uncontrolled heating or cooling conditions. Possible causes are:
 relief of residual stresses coming from previous manufacturing operations
 high temperature plastic (static or creep) deformation due to weight or stacking
of part

 Constrained thermal expansion of parts that are in contact with other bodies
 Thermal gradients between different regions of the furnace chamber (large parts)
 Large thickness reductions resulting in differential heating rates
 Irreversible distortions (shape)
Other possible causes related to cooling are:
 large thickness reductions resulting in different cooling rates of different regions
 handling of parts at very high temperature (very low yield strength) that are cast
into the quenching tanks from austenitizing temperature.
 Type and properties of the quenching media and its related cooling efficiency
During quenching, cooling occurs according to different mechanisms: metal-vapour;
metal- boiling liquid; metal-liquid (convection)
 Irreversible distortions (shape)

To avoid distortions (or even cracks), each stage of heat exchange should in principle
occur in the same period of time throughout the volume of the part.

Maximum size relationship to avoid shape distortion in steel parts for different cooling media
 A practical example
A study on modeling of the cooling conditions of rather large steel rings during
quenching
Initial shape
Hot stage
After quenching