An Introduction to shape memory alloys

G Jayabharath Reddy

September 1, 2020

1 Introduction

Shape memory alloys are among a specialised group of materials known as active materials or
smart materials. They offer additional engineering functionality like sensing, actuation etc.,
These are the materials which respond to stimuli like electric field, temperature, magnetic field
etc. They can be subdivided into materials that exhibit direct or indirect coupling, piezoelectric
materials, shape memory materials, magnetostrictive ceramics are examples of direct coupling
where mechanical or non-mechanical field can serve as input and other as output. The suitability
of an active material with direct coupling for actuation applications depends on factors like
actuation energy density (available work output per unit volume) and the actuation frequency
of the material. They high actuation energy densities [1] as shown in figure 1 when compared to
other materials.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) materials find use in the most advanced applications not
only due to their functional properties of SME but also due to the utility properties. They find
extremely widespread use in medicine because they are biocompatible. Shape memory alloy or
“smart alloy” was first discovered by Arne Ölander in 1932 Their importance was not recognised
until William Buehler and Frederick Wang revealed the shape memory effect (SME) in a nickel-
titanium (NiTi) alloy in 1962 which is also known as nitinol. Shape memory alloys are materials
with the ability to remember the shape even after deformation. when the deformed material
is heated they will spontaneously return to original shape. The basis for this behaviour is to
easily transform to and from martensite. This is possible because of phase transformation in the

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 Figure 1: Energy density of shape memory alloys

material, which can be achieved with change in temperature or induced stress. These unique
characteristics of SMA s have made them popular for a variety of applications like bio medical
aerospace and oil and gas industries.

2 Microscopic phenomenon of martensite

In General metallic alloys exhibit different phases with different structure and properties. Shape
memory alloys have two stable phases with different crystal and properties. The high Tem-
perature phase is called Austenite (A) with BCC structure and a low temperature phase is
called martensite (M) with tetragonal, orthorhombic or monoclinic structure.The fundamental
reason for the unique behaviour of these alloys is due to the martensitic phase transformation.
These solid state phase transformation are of two types: diffusion and displacive. In diffusional
transformation a new phase is formed by moving atoms over relatively long distances and this
type of transformation is dependent on both time and temperature. In contrast with displacive
transformation atoms are co-operatively rearranged into new stable crystal structures in a time
independent fashion. Martensite transformations are generally of this second type and are formed

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 Figure 2: Two mechanisms of shape change by (a)Slip and (b)Twinning

by cooling. They are called first order transformations because heat is liberated when martensite
is formed and it inherits the composition and atomic order of parent phase with a hysteresis
associated with it.

Crystallographically the transformation from austenite to martensite is of two parts

Bain strain and lattice-invariant shear. The Bain strain is generally consists of several small
atomic shuttles. The structure produced by Bain strain is of a different shape and volume.
The lattice-invariant shear is an accommodation step with negligible volume change. The shape
memory alloys undergo only shape change. During the phase change the actual structure must
be altered to accommodate new structure. This can happen in two ways one is slip and other is
twinning. Slip is permanent process and is common accommodation process in many Martensite
where the bonds are broken. Twinning accommodates shape change in a reversible way as shown
in figure 2. As the shape memory effect requires the accommodation be fully reversible, therefore
twinning be dominant accommodation process. During this transformation process each crystal
can have a different orientation direction called variant. These variants will be chosen based on
the applied stress. Because of presence of twin boundaries which have low energy and are quite
mobile, different variants exist. A single variant of martensite can be produced by straining and
consolidating of many twin variants into favoured variant known as detwinning.

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3 Shape memory effect

The transformation from parent phase austenite to product phase Martensite when cooled is
termed as forward transformation. This results in formation of multiple martensite variants upto
24 for NiTi[2]. Here the shape change is not noticeable resulting in formation of twinned marten-
site. when the stress is applied the shape of martensite is changed to form detwinned martensite.
When the material is heated it transforms back to austenite this is termed as reverse transforma-
tion. The process described above is termed as shape memory effect. The forward and reverse
transformation occur over a range of temperature for a given alloy composition. The forward
transformation begins at martensite start temperature (Ms )and completes at martensite finish
temperature(Mf ). Here the material is fully in twinned martensite phase. The minimum stress
required for detwinning initiation is termed the detwinning start stress (σs ). Sufficiently high
load levels will result in complete detwinning of martensite where the corresponding stress level
is called the detwinning finish stress (σf ) . Similarly during heating the reverse transformation
starts at austenite start temperature(As ) and complete at austenite finish temperature(Af ). The
SME effect is understood by following the thermo mechanical loading path in combined stress-
strain temperature space as shown in figure 3. It represents experimental data for a typical
TiNi specimen where σ Represents uni-axial stress and  represents corresponding strain and T
represents temperature.

Figure 3: Shape Memory effect fot NiTi SMA

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 Starting from the parent phase at point A as shown in Figure 3, the cooling of austenite
below the forward transformation temperatures (Ms and Mf ) results in the formation of twinned
martensite at point B. When the twinned martensite is subjected to an applied stress that exceeds
the start stress level(σs ), the detwinning process is initiated, resulting in the growth of certain
favourably oriented martensitic variants. The stress level for reorientation of the variants is far
lower than the permanent plastic yield stress of martensite. The detwinning process is completed
at a stress level (σf ) as shown in Figure 3. The material is then elastically unloaded from C to D
and the detwinned martensitic state is retained. Upon heating in the absence of stress, the reverse
transformation initiates as the temperature reaches As , at E and is completed at temperature
Af at point F, above which only the parent austenitic phase exists. Subsequent cooling to
martensite will again result in the formation of self-accommodated twinned martensitic variants
with no associated shape change, and the whole cycle of the SME can be repeated. The above
described phenomenon is called one-way shape memory effect, or simply SME, because the shape
recovery is achieved only during heating after the material has been detwinned by an applied
mechanical load.

4 psuedoelasticity

In addition to thermally induced phase transformation, transformation can also be induced by

applying a sufficiently high mechanical load to the material in the austenitic phase. The result of
this load is fully detwinned martensite created from austenite. If the temperature of the material
is above Af , a complete shape recovery is observed upon unloading to austenite. This material
behaviour is called the pseudoelastic effect. This is also termed as stress induced transforma-
tion (SIM).The driving force now is mechanical for the trnsformation.The stress now required
depend on temperatures and they depend linearly with temperature[3] as shown in figure 4a. A
pseudoelastic thermomechanical loading path generally starts at a sufficiently high temperature
where stable austenite exists, then develops under an applied load to a state at which detwinned
martensite is stable, and finally returns to the austenitic phase when returned to zero stress
state. The stress vs strain experimental data for the loading path is shown in Figure 4b. When

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 (a) (b)

Figure 4: (a)Stress vs Temparature for shape memory alloys,(b)A typical SMA pseudoelastic
loading cycle.

a mechanical load is applied, the parent phase (austenite) undergoes elastic loading from A to
B. At a certain stress level (σ M s ) for the onset of transformation into martensite. The trans-
formation proceeds (B to C), to the stress level (σ M f ) indicating the end of the transformation.
The completion of martensitic transformation is indicated by a distinct change in slope on the
σ −  curve, which is associated with the elastic loading of the martensitic phase. A subse-
quent increase in the stress causes no further transformation and only the elastic deformation
of detwinned martensite occurs C to D. When the stress is released gradually by unloading, the
martensite elastically unloads along the path (D to E). At point E, the martensite reverts to
austenite. The process is accompanied by the recovery of the strain due to phase transformation
at the end of unloading. The reverse transformation back into austenite is denoted by the point
at which the σ −  unloading curve rejoins the elastic region of austenite. The material then
elastically unloads to A. This transformation during a complete pseudoelastic cycle results in
a hysteresis, represents the energy dissipated in the transformation cycle. The transformation
stress levels and the size of the hysteresis vary depending on the SMA material.

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5 Applictions

Generally applications are either from their the pseudoelasticity which can store the deformation
energy or the SME can be used to generate motion and or force. They are used in aerospace,
automotive, automation and control, appliance, energy, chemical processing, heating and ven-
tilation, safety and security, and electronics (MEMS devices) NiTi thermovariable rate springs,
which are used to control the opening door in the self-cleaning oven[4]. In automotives they are
used to offer smooth gear shifting for Mercedez-Benz automatic transmissions and a vehicle was
developed with a SMA actuator to actuate the hatch vent for easier closing of the trunk lid.
They are used in future technologies with SMAs where an electric generator is used to generate
electricity from exhaust heat and a situation-dependent active louver to an automatic pedestrian
protection system to minimise pedestrian injuries during impact collisions

In Aerospace applications the SMA coupling are used for hydraulic lines in the F-
14 fighter jets[4]. The unique properties of SMAs have led to greater interest in aerospace
applications which are subjected to high dynamic loads and geometric space constraints. They
are also used in Robotic applications in a diverse range of commercial robotic systems, especially
as micro-actuators or artificial muscles

Although NiTi alloys are significantly more expensive than stainless steels, they are
preferred for biomedical applications because of high corrosion resistance, bio-compatibllity, non-
magnetic and the unique physical properties which replicate those of human tissues and bones[5].
Biomedical devices were early adopters where they are used for implants in dentistry and supere-
lastic braces made from a NiTi alloy. The first SMA stent was made by Dotter’s group in 1983,
and since then it has evolved remarkably from simple coiled wire form to the complex laser cut
structures

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6 References
[1] Lagoudas, Dimitris C. Shape Memory Alloys: Modeling and Engineering Applications. Springer,
2008.
[2] V. Antonucci and A. Martone, “Chapter 2 - Phenomenology of Shape Memory Alloys,”
in Shape Memory Alloy Engineering, L. Lecce and A. Concilio, Eds. Boston: Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2015, pp. 33–56.
[3] Duerig, T. W., et al. Engineering Aspects of Shape Memory Alloys. Butterworth-Heinemann,
2013.
[4] Mohd Jani, Jaronie, et al. “A Review of Shape Memory Alloy Research, Applications and Op-
portunities.” Materials Design (1980-2015), vol. 56, Apr. 2014, pp. 1078–113, doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2013.11.084.
[5] Ziolkowski, Andrzej. Pseudoelasticity of Shape Memory Alloys: Theory and Experimental
Studies. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015.