DOI: 10.1002/srin.200900132 steel research int. 81 (2010) No.

Microstructure Transformations in Tempering Steels during Continuous Cooling from

Hot Forging Temperatures

F. Nürnberger 1)*, O. Grydin 1), M. Schaper 1), F.-W. Bach 1), B. Koczurkiewicz 2), and A. Milenin 3)

1)
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Materials Science, Leibniz Universität Hannover, An der Universität 2, 30823 Garbsen,
Germany, nuernberger@iw.uni-hannover.de
2)
Faculty of Materials Processing Technology and Applied Physics, Institute of Modelling and Automation of Plastic Forming Processes,
Cze˛stochowa University of Technology, Al. Armii Krajowej 19, 42/200 Cze˛stochowa, Poland
3)
Faculty of Metals, Engineering and Industrial Computer Science, Department of Applied Computer Science and Modelling, AGH University
of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30059 Krakow, Poland
* Corresponding author

Apart from reducing the processing energy, hardening and tempering of near-net shape forged components from their forging heat primarily
promises shortened conventional process sequences. In this case, the continuous cooling transformation diagrams (CCT diagrams) found in the
literature can only be used as a rough approximation of microstructural transformations during the heat-treatment. The reasons for this are that
firstly, the deformation influences the transformation kinetics and secondly, the deformation temperatures are comparatively high. Therefore,
both deformation CCT diagrams and, for reference purposes, CCT diagrams without deformation were determined for a selection of heat-
treatable steels (34CrMo4, 42CrMo4, 52CrMo4, 51CrV4, 34NiMo6) at the heating temperature of 1200 8C and deformation levels of 0.3 and 0.6.

Keywords: Deformation CCT diagrams, heat-treatable steels, precision forging, integrated heat-treatment

Submitted on 27 September 2009, accepted on 28 December 2009

Introduction number of common alloys [3] and [4]. However, depending

Procedures for the numerical design of process-steps or
complete process chains are becoming increasingly more
important since their use can reduce the extent of laborious
experimental investigations. Besides saving costs, their
implementation enhances an understanding of the process
and promotes the potential for optimisation. This is an
advantage particularly during the realisation of new types of
processes; as for example during precision forging with
subsequent heat-treatment using the heat of hot forming.
This integrated heat-treatment, which is investigated within
the framework of the Collaborative Research Centre 489 at
the Leibniz Universität Hannover [1], is characterised by
flashless, near-net shape forged components (see Figure 1).
Therefore, the usual post-forge processing of conventional
forging methods can be dispensed with.
The remaining heat in the forged component following hot
forming is then used for the subsequent heat-treatment [2].
Suitable materials for precision forged, high-performance
components like gear wheels or crankshafts are heat-
treatable steels since, owing to their carbon content, they
can be surface hardened during the cooling from the hot-
forming temperature.
The key to successfully experimentally or numerically
predicting heat-treating processes is generally a knowledge
of the microstructural and temperature dependency of the
material parameters and thereby particularly of the con-
tinuous cooling transformation diagrams (CCT diagrams).
The latter exist in the form of data-collections for a large
on process factors such as austenitising conditions, hot
forming or charge influences, that is, deviations of chemical
composition, the transformation kinetics change, possibly to
such a significant degree that the diagrams lose their validity
under these conditions.
Influence of austenitising. The carbides dissolve with
increasing austenitising temperature and duration after
which grain growth commences. Enlarged grains cause
both a retardation of the pearlite transformation, initiated
from the austenite grain boundaries, as well as a fall in the
martensite start-temperature [5].
Within the framework of investigations on the through-
heat treatability of heavy forgings, Bandel and Haumer [6]
were able to identify the quantitative influence of the
austenite’s grain size on the transformation behaviour of
different steels. They observed that increasing the austen-
ite’s grain sizes leads to extended initiation and total
transformation times for the isothermal pearlitic trans-
formations (see Figure 2). Contrastingly, the bainitic
transformations were not influenced.
Thermomechanical influences on the transformation
behaviour. Phase transformations in steel, which are
retarded or accelerated by thermomechanical processing,
or changes in the temperature intervals during which these
transformations occur, are described in the literature by, for
example, Kaspar et al. [8]. For instance, for hot forming
at 770 8C with a deformation of 1.25, an accelerated

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Materials Technology
Figure 1. Gear wheel and pinion shaft of the Collaborative Research
Centre 489, precision forged at the Institute of Metal Forming and Metal
Forming Machines, Leibniz Universität Hannover.
Figure 2. Influence of the austenite’s grain size, according to SEP
1510-61 [7], on the transformation of 28 NiCrMo 7 4 steel to the pearlite
stage [6].
Figure 3. Influence of hot forming at 7708C on the CCT diagram of a
0.45% C steel (strain 1.25) [8].
transformation of austenite to ferrite and pearlite is shown in
the CCT diagram of a hypoeutectoid steel owing to
additional nucleation points such as lattice defects, slip
bands and increased grain boundary densities (see Figure 3).
If thereby the fraction of bainite formed at the same cooling
rate falls, then the corresponding microstructural hardness is
lowered.
If high dislocation densities, such as those with austenitic
hot forming below the recrystallisation temperature, are
transferred to the bainitic or martensitic transformed
microstructure, very fine microstructures are formed [9].
Investigations on the heat-treatable steel 42CrMo4
by Weise show accelerated ferritic-pearlitic transforma-
tions and correspondingly increasing transformation
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steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3
temperatures with increasing deformation at deformation
temperatures of 850 8C [10]. Whereas low deformations
(approx. 30%) show no effect on the bainite regions, the
bainitic transformation is translated to shorter times at
higher deformations of approx. 60%. Furthermore, a harder
microstructure can be observed with increasing deforma-
tion. Despite reports of various authors [8] and [11–13],
Weise could establish no lowering of the martensitic start-
temperature as a consequence of hot forming. Kaspar et al.
point out that, in the literature, increasing martensite start-
temperatures have been occasionally observed [14] and [15].
Jost and Hornbogen investigated the dependency of the
martensite start-temperature on the reduction of plate
thickness of a FeNiCoTi alloy [16]. Using transmission
electron-microscopical analyses, they were able to establish
that the martensite start-temperature fell during deformation
if homogenous dislocation structures are produced. At
comparatively low temperatures, at which inhomogeneous
dislocation structures like slip bands existed, they were able
to establish a rise in the martensite start-temperature with
increasing deformation.
Kruglova et al. investigated the influence of hot forming
on the transformation behaviour of low-alloyed low-carbon
steels [17]. According to the alloy’s composition, deforma-
tion and austenitising condition, they were able to establish a
small rise in the transformation temperatures of ferrite to
pearlite, a lowering or a rise in the bainite onset and end-
temperatures as well as an acceleration or retardation of the
pearlitic or bainitic transformations. Here, high austenitising
temperatures of 1200 8C cause, for example, a lowering of
the Ar3-temperature and a widening of the temperature
interval of bainite formation. Slight changes of the trans-
formation regions are mainly depicted in the CCT diagrams.
A modification of the microstructure could often be
observed such as, for example, the formation of needle
shaped instead of granular bainite on austenitising at
1200 8C and subsequently deforming at 920 8C. In regions
of critical deformation (approx. 5%), partial grain growth
led to inhomogeneous structures of non-uniform size
distribution.
Objective. The process of precision forging is charac-
terised by bulk deformation at comparatively high defor-
mation temperatures of approx. 1200 8C. The transformation
kinetics of the employed alloys on cooling from the hot-
forming temperature is not yet known for the prevailing
process parameters. For this reason, the objective of the
authors was to characterise the transformation behaviour of
different heat-treatable steels, which are suitable for surface
hardening, by means of deformation dependent continuous
cooling transformation diagrams.
Experimental Set-up
The alloys 34CrMo4 (1.7220), 42CrMo4 (1.7225),
50CrMo4 (1.7228), 51CrV4 (1.8159) and 34CrNiMo6
(1.6582) were used to construct the deformation CCT
diagrams. The chemical compositions of the investigated
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steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3 Materials Technology

Table 1. Chemical composition of the investigated melts in weight %. A linear cooling mode was selected for constructing the
Alloy 34CrMo4 42CrMo4 50CrMo4 51CrV4 34CrNiMo6 deformation CCT diagrams since the measurement time for
constructing continuous diagrams is then considerably
C 0.325 0.410 0.491 0.467 0.326
reduced, compared to isothermal diagrams, so that a larger
Si 0.289 0.336 0.212 0.223 0.263 parameter range could be investigated. If knowledge of the
Mn 0.577 0.701 0.647 0.845 0.588
isothermal transformation kinetics is required for the
process design, different methods are available in the
P 0.007 0.011 0.005 0.006 0.001 literature to compute isothermal [21, 22] and [23] or ideal
S 0.003 0.025 0.004 0.017 0.004 Diagrams [24] from the CCT diagrams.
Owing to the specimens’ small geometric size, hardness
Cr 0.945 0.998 1.039 1.015 1.433
measurements were carried out at only three different
Cu 0.286 0.380 0.219 0.223 0.260 positions. That is, given hardness values are mean values for
Mo 0.132 0.171 0.133 0.013 0.126 three indentations. The relative error of measurement was
calculated according to Student’s coefficient proposed by
Ni 0.098 0.191 0.092 0.083 1.469 Gosset [25]. A confidence probability of 90% was used
Al 0.025 0.029 0.024 0.018 0.023 which resulted in a mean value of the relative error regarding
all measurements of about 6.1% of the hardness value. The
Nb 0.019 0.019 0.020 0.063 0.020
position of the hardness measurement was chosen according
N 0.0092 0.0112 0.0114 0.0090 0.0076 to [26] in the following manner: (i) The specimens were
embedded, longitudinally ground until the layer at the centre
(rotational axis) was reached and then subsequently
polished. (ii) Positions for hardness indentation were about
1/3 of radius and 1/3 of specimen length.

melts are given in Table 1, measured by glow discharge Results

optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES, type GDA 550,
company Spectruma) and by a N,O,H-analyzer (TCH600,
company Leco).
To simulate the precision forging process, the material
specimens of the investigated melts (5 mm diameter, 10 mm
long) were heated within 30 s to an austenitising temperature
of 1200 8C. Following isothermal soaking for 600 s, a
compressive deformation of 30% or 60%, as the case may
be, was carried out at a deformation speed of 1 s 1.
Following this, the samples were linearly cooled using
cooling rates in the range from 80 K s 1 to 0.02 K s 1. For
reference purposes, diagrams were constructed without
deformation. Approx. 15 dilatometer measurements for
different cooling rates were taken for each deformation CCT
diagram. In the depicted curves, the start and end of
microstructure transformations were manually constructed.
The dilatometric measurements were carried out at the
Technical University Czestochowa, Poland using a defor-
mation dilatometer DIL 805 A/D manufactured by Bähr
Thermoanalyse GmbH. The investigations were carried out
according to the Polish standard PN-68/H-04500 [18],
which essentially corresponds to the German ‘‘Stahl-
Eisen-Prüfblättern’’ SEP 1680 or SEP 1681 [19] and [20].
Where possible, the amount of the microstructures’ phases
was determined by analysing the brightness distribution
(histogram) of one or more micrographs. For cases of three
or more different coexisting phases, such measurement was
not always definitive. Hence, the amount of phases was
estimated manually in a microscope by using predefined
micrographs, containing known amounts of different
phases, for comparison. Thus regarding the microstructure
constituents’ quantity, the percentage error in the measure-
ment for each phase can be assumed to be single-digit.
For reasons of clarity, but contrary to the German ‘‘Stahl-
Eisen-Prüfblätter’’ guidelines, the deformation CCT dia-
grams depicted in the following are not provided with
hardness values. For the same reason, a range from 200 8C to
900 8C was selected for the temperature profiles. In addition
to this, phase regions are depicted separately even if the
temperature difference between the phases is less than 50 K.
Based on the selected minimum cooling rate of 0.02 K s 1,
only a few data points in part exist for the ferrite or, as the
case may be, the pearlite regions so that the depicted curves’
trajectories represent an estimate. Lower cooling rates are
not technically relevant for precision forging with integrated
heat-treatment since this cooling rate already corresponds to
a cooling period of more than 16 h to reach room temperature
from the deformation temperature.
34CrMo4. The CCT diagram for the material 34CrMo4
(see Figure 4, full-line) shows ferritic, pearlitic, bainitic and
martensitic components.
The critical cooling rate observed, i.e. the rate at which
just about 100% martensite is formed, is 15 K s 1. Bainite is
formed at cooling rates of between 6 K s 1 and 0.15 K s 1.
Ferrite and pearlite can be established at cooling rates lower
than 1 K s 1 and 0.6 K s 1, respectively (see also Table 2).
Between the regions of martensite and bainite formation
there is a relatively large temperature interval which is free
of transformations. Furthermore, there are smaller trans-
formation-free intervals between the bainite and pearlite as
well as the pearlite and ferrite phase regions.
A deformation of 30% (broken-line) shows, just as much
an increase to 60% (dotted-line), merely slight changes of

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Materials Technology steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3

900 Table 2. Metallographically determined microstructural com-

Ac3
ponents together with hardness values measured on the specimens
800 ferrite of the heat-treatable steel 34CrMo4 for various linear cooling rates
Ac1 (Ks 1) and deformation levels (F: ferrite, P: pearlite, B: bainite, M:
700
pearlite
Perlit martensite, HV: Vickers hardness in HV10).
temperature in °C

austenite
600 34CrMo4
500 Bainit
bainite 1
Ks 30 15 6 1 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.07 0.04
400 0% strain
0%
300 30 % F – – – 1 10 18 21 24 31
Martensit
martensite
200 P – – – 3 67 71 76 69
1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 1)
B <1 <1 80 99 87 15 8 – –
900
M 100 100 20 – – – – – –
800
HV 556 543 463 301 272 240 243 198 165
temperature in °C

700
30% strain
600
F – – – – 5 9 13 28 32
500 P – – – – 2 26 87 72 68
400 B – – 35 100 93 65 – – –
30 %
300 60 % M 100 100 65 – – – – – –
200 HV 564 563 433 288 278 267 235 205 174
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
time in s
60% strain
Figure 4. Deformation CCT diagrams for the material 34CrMo4 with F – – – 5 10 15 22 22 23
0%, 30% and 60% deformation at an austenitising temperature of
1200 8C. P – – – – 10 30 78 78 77
2)
B – 4 50 95 80 55 – – –
M 100 96 50 – – – – – –
the transformation behaviour except for a rise of the
martensite start-temperature. HV 581 557 432 287 280 274 225 184 184
This is also demonstrated by the small changes of hardness 1)
Bainite within segregations
values for increasing deformation. A comparison of the 2)
Bainite not detected during dilatometric measurements
microstructural components formed for different deforma-
tions shows a slight retardation in the bainite formation and,
as a consequence, a smaller fraction of pearlite for a cooling formation temperatures have a tendency to fall with the
rate of 0.3 K s 1 (see Table 2 and Figure 5, right). deformation in addition to initiating the transformation
At this cooling rate, the pearlitic structures slightly earlier. However, owing to the small number of data values,
decrease in size with the deformation level. In contrast, the an interpretation of the ferritic and pearlitic formation’s
almost identical microstructures are shown for the cooling influence due to deformation can only be approximated.
rate of 0.6 K s 1 and varied deformation levels for In comparison to the transformation behaviour of melt
comparison. one, a ferrite, pearlite and bainite formation appears to be
retarded to a later time.
42CrMo4. The CCT diagram for the material 42CrMo4 A comparison of the microstructural components formed
(see Figure 6, full-line) shows ferritic, pearlitic, bainitic and during deformation shows an increased bainite content at a
martensitic components. The critical cooling rate observed cooling rate of 1 K s 1 following deformation and a low
is 6 K s 1. fraction of pearlite at a cooling rate of 0.07 K s 1 (see Table 3
Bainite is formed at cooling rates of between 1 K s 1 and and Figure 7 - right). The microstructure’s hardness tends to
0.07 K s 1. Ferrite and pearlite can be established at cooling decrease owing to the slightly accelerated microstructural
rates from 0.07 K s 1 and less (see Table 3). Between the transformation due to the deformation.
regions of martensite and bainite formation as well as Figure 7 - left, clearly illustrates the reduction of the
between bainite and pearlite formation there is a temperature austenite’s grain size owing to the deformation by means
interval which is free of transformations. of the extended martensitic structures at a cooling rate of
In comparison to the CCT diagram, a deformation of 30% 15 K s 1.
(broken-line) shows merely slight changes of the trans-
formation behaviour except for a rise of the martensite start- 50CrMo4. The CCT diagram for the material 50CrMo4
temperature. It turns out that the ferrite and pearlite (see Figure 8, full-line) shows ferritic, pearlitic, bainitic and

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steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3 Materials Technology

Table 3. Metallographically determined microstructural compo-

nents together with hardness values measured on the specimens
of the heat-treatable steel 42CrMo4 for various linear cooling rates
(Ks 1) and deformation levels. (F: ferrite, P: pearlite, B: bainite,
M: martensite, HV: Vickers hardness in HV10).
42CrMo4
1
Ks 30 15 6 1 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.07 0.04
0% strain
F – – – – – – – 4 4
P – – – – – – – 60 96

B – – – 56 60 90 100 36 –
M 100 100 100 44 40 10 – – –
HV 727 704 732 467 385 347 322 313 253
30% strain
F – – – – – – 1 2 15
P – – – – – – 5 45 85

B – – traces 70 95 100 94 53 –
M 100 100 100 30 5 – – – –
HV 686 699 690 455 356 329 309 317 216
60% strain
Figure 5. Microstructure of the heat-treatable steel 34CrMo4 for the F – – – – – – <1 1 2
cooling rates 0.6 K s 1 (left) and 0.3 K s 1 (right), respectively. Above:
P – – – – – – 2 8 95
Without deformation, middle: Deformation level 30%, below: Defor-
mation level 60%. B – – – 65 90 98 98 91 3
M – 100 100 35 10 2 – – –
HV – 681 685 472 373 334 322 328 322

martensitic components. The critical cooling rate observed

Figure 6. Deformation CCT diagrams for the material 42CrMo4 after
0%, 30% and 60% deformation, austenitising temperature 1200 8C.
is 15 K s 1. Bainite is formed at cooling rates of between
6 K s 1 and 0.3 K s 1. Ferrite and pearlite can be established
at cooling rates from 1 K s 1 and less (see Table 4).
Between the regions of martensite and bainite formation
as well as between bainite and pearlite formation there is a
temperature interval which is free of transformations.
A deformation of 30% (broken-line) causes an increase of
the martensite start-temperature, a slight retardation of the
ferrite’s and pearlite’s formation as well as an increase of the
bainite formation temperature. It appears that the ferrite and
pearlite formation temperatures have a tendency to fall with
a deformation of 60%. In comparison to the transformation
behaviour of melts one and two, a reduced temperature
interval of bainite formation exists. A reduced influence of
the deformation on the microstructural hardness is
demonstrated.
A comparison of the microstructural components formed
for different deformations shows a reduced bainite content
for a cooling rate of 0.3 K s 1 and an increased fraction of
pearlite (see Table 4 and Figure 9, right). By means of the
length of the bainite plates in Figure 9, right, it is clear that
the bainitic microstructure exhibits smaller dimensions with
increasing deformation.

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Materials Technology steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3

Table 4. Metallographically determined microstructural compo-

nents together with hardness values measured on the specimens
of the heat-treatable steel 50CrMo4 for various linear cooling rates
(Ks 1) and deformation levels. (F: ferrite, P: pearlite, B: bainite,
M: martensite, HV: Vickers hardness in HV10).
50CrMo4
1
Ks 30 15 6 1 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.07 0.04
0% strain
F – – – <1 1 1 1 6 11
P – – – 2 6 15 99 94 89

B – – 10 96 91 81 – – –
M 100 100 90 2 2 3 – – –
HV 747 703 682 316 320 340 307 236 192
30% strain
F – – – – 1 1 1 3 4
P – – – – 5 40 99 97 96

B – – 10 99 93 59 – – –
M 100 100 90 1 1 – – – –
HV 704 712 653 312 318 330 299 241 202
60% strain
Figure 7. Microstructure of the heat-treatable steel 42CrMo4 for the F – – – – <1 1 2 – 5
cooling rates 15 K s 1 (left) and 0.07 K s 1 (right) respectively. Above:
P – – – – 7 52 98 – 95
Without deformation, middle: Deformation level 30%, below: Defor-
mation level 60%. B – – 4 94 90 37 – – –
1)
M 100 100 96 6 3 10 – – –
HV 692 734 652 343 318 332 301 – 217
1)
Martensite within segregations

51CrV4. The CCT diagram for the 51CrV4 material

Figure 8. Deformation CCT diagrams for the material 50CrMo4 with
0%, 30% and 60% deformation, austenitising temperature 1200 8C.
(see Figure 10, sketched in grey) shows no ferritic
microstructural components in the metallographically
prepared specimens so that the phase regions martensite,
bainite and pearlite are depicted in the deformation CCT
diagrams. The critical cooling rate observed is 6 K s 1.
Bainite is formed at cooling rates of between 1 K s 1 and
0.6 K s 1. Pearlite can be established at cooling rates from
0.3 K s 1 and less (see Table 5). Between the regions of
martensite and bainite formation as well as between bainite
and pearlite formation are temperature intervals which are
free of transformations.
A deformation of 30% (broken-line) shows an increase in
the martensite start-temperature and in the bainite’s
formation temperature. It appears that the pearlite region
has a tendency to be accelerated and its temperature interval
to be widened. No tendency can be discerned that the
microstructural hardness value increases owing to the
deformation. In comparison to the transformation behaviour
of melts one, two and three, a reduced temperature interval
of bainite formation is exhibited.
A comparison of the microstructural components formed
for different deformations shows a reduced bainite

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steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3 Materials Technology

Table 5. Metallographically determined microstructural compo-

nents together with hardness values measured on the specimens
of the heat-treatable steel 51CrV4 for various linear cooling rates
(Ks 1) and deformation levels. (P: pearlite, B: bainite, M: martensite,
HV: Vickers hardness in HV10).
51CrV4
1
Ks 80 50 30 15 6 1 0.6 0.3 0.15
0% strain
P – – – – – – 3 100 100
B – – – – – 98 97 – –

M 100 100 100 100 100 2 – – –

HV 715 736 802 735 727 404 349 360 338
30% strain
P – – – – – 10 50 100 100
B – – – – – 88 50 – –
M 100 100 100 100 100 2 – – –

HV 746 717 730 729 741 384 385 361 328

60% strain
P – – – – – 5 50 100 100
B – – – – – 91 50 – –
Figure 9. Microstructure of the heat-treatable steel 50CrMo4 for the
cooling rates 6 K s 1 (left) and 0.3 K s 1 (right) respectively. Above: M 100 100 100 100 100 4 – – –
Without deformation, middle: Deformation level 30%, below: Defor- HV 813 757 741 746 743 379 385 364 336
mation level 60%.

content for a cooling rate of 0.6 K s 1 and an increased

fraction of pearlite due to deformation (see Table 5 and
Figure 11 - right). The usual needle shaped bainitic
structure is depicted in Figure 11 - left, for a cooling rate
of 1 K s 1 and various deformations.

34CrNiMo6. In the case of material 34CrNiMo6, the

Figure 10. Deformation CCT diagrams for the material 51CrV4 with
0%, 30% and 60% deformation, austenitising temperature 1200 8C.
selected minimum cooling rates were too rapid to bring
about pearlite formation so that the depicted phase regions
involve martensite, bainite and ferrite (see Figure 12).
The critical cooling rate used above is 6 K s 1. Bainite
could be measured at cooling rates lower than 1 K s 1 and
forms the main microstructural component up to cooling
rates of 0.02 K s 1. Ferrite can be established for the first
time at cooling rates below 0.04 K s 1 (see Table 6).
Between the regions of martensite and bainite formation as
well as between bainite and pearlite formation there is a
temperature interval which is free of transformations.
A deformation of 30% shows a slight increase of the
martensite start-temperature and a considerable temperature
jump of the bainite’s formation temperature. In comparison
to the transformation behaviour of melts one, two, three and
four, a widened interval of bainite formation is shown at later
times. Owing to the deformation, the microstructure’s
hardness tends to slightly increase.

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Materials Technology steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3

Table 6. Metallographically determined microstructural com-

ponents together with hardness values measured on the specimens
of the heat-treatable steel 34CrNiMo6 for various linear cooling rates
(Ks 1) and deformation levels. (F: ferrite, B: bainite, M: martensite,
HV: Vickers hardness in HV10).
34CrNiMo6
1
Ks 30 15 6 1 0.6 0.3 0.15 0.04 0.02
0% strain
F – – – – – – – <1 19
B – – – 4 5 80 89 100 81

M 100 100 100 96 95 20 11 – –

HV 590 570 606 566 521 428 378 323 228
30% strain
F – – – – – – – <1 28
B – – <1 1 23 70 99 100 72
M 100 100 100 99 77 30 1 – –

HV 639 613 597 567 582 447 370 338 261

60% strain
F – – – – – – – – 11
B – – – 8 41 92 96 – 89
Figure 11. Microstructure of the heat-treatable steel 51CrV4 for the M 100 100 – 92 59 8 4 – –
cooling rates 6 K s 1 (left) and 0.6 K s 1 (right) respectively. Above:
Without deformation, middle: Deformation level 30%, below: Defor- HV 582 598 – 571 532 448 401 –
mation level 60%.

Figure 13. Microstructureofthe heat-treatable steel34CrNiMo6for the

Figure 12. Deformation CCT diagrams for the material 34CrNiMo6 coolingrates0.6 Ks 1 (left)and0.02 Ks 1 (right)respectively.Above:Without
with 0%, 30% and 60% deformation, austenitising temperature 1200 8C. deformation, middle: Deformation level 30%, below: Deformation level 60%.

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steel research int. 81 (2010) No. 3
The usual needle shaped bainitic structure in a basic
martensitic matrix is depicted in Figure 13, left, for a
cooling rate of 0.6 K s 1 and various deformations. On the
right in Figure 13, the ferritic-bainitic microstructure formed
under the different deformation conditions is shown for a
cooling rate of 0.02 K s 1. The microstructure of the
transformationally sluggish heat-treatable 34CrNiMo6 steel
changes only slightly in its composition and structure owing
to the deformation of the material.
Influence of the deformation on the martensite start-
temperature. A comparison of the CCT diagrams
with and without deformation show that the martensite
start-temperature tends to increase with deformation for all
the investigated materials. According to material and
deformation stage, the increase is hardly measurable and
amounts to no more than 50 K (see Figure 14). The standard
deviation of the measured martensite start-temperatures are
approx. 5% to 8%. As expected, the martensite start-
temperature tends to decrease with increasing carbon content
(cf. Table 1).
Owing to the deformation, a tendency to widen the
transition interval can be observed for cooling rates at which
bainite is initially formed. According to this, it is to be
assumed that the upper critical cooling rate slightly increases
for the alloys 42CrMo4 and 50CrMo4 or 51CrV4 owing to
deformation.
Influence of the cooling rate on the hardness value
The measured hardness values for the investigated alloys
are depicted in Figure 15 as a function of the cooling rate.
The hardness values increase with the cooling rates;
however, plateaus of constant hardness can be discerned
(at approx. 0.1 K s 1 to 1 K s 1 as well as greater than
approx. 6 K s 1). This correlates with the states in which the
microstructure is almost exclusively bainitic or martensitic
(moderate or high hardness values, respectively).
Conclusions
– Slight changes in the lines for the onset and ending of the
microstructural transformation can be observed owing to
deformation. In this way, the temperature interval for
Figure 14. Influence of deformation on the martensite start-
temperature Ms of the investigated alloys.
232 ß 2010 Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Materials Technology
800
700
hardness in HV10
600
500
400
300
200
100
0,01 0,10 1 10 100
cooling rate in K/s
alloy regression alloy regression
51CrV4 34CrNiMo6
50CrMo4 34CrMo4
42CrMo4
Figure 15. Influence of the cooling rate on the hardness of the inves-
tigated alloys.
bainite formation widens to higher temperatures for the
alloys 51CrV4, 34CrNiMo6 and 50CrMo4.
– The influence of deformation on pearlite formation is
difficult to interpret owing, in part, to the small number of
data points. The comparatively large time intervals up to
the onset of pearlite formation appear to offset the effect of
deformation on austenitic grain sizes insofar that no
significant acceleration of pearlite formation can be
established. The alloy 51CrV4 is an exception to this case.
– An increase of the martensite start-temperatures with
deformation is established for each of the investigated
alloys.
– A deformation leads, moreover, to changes in the
quantitative microstructural composition at cooling rates
for which pearlite initially forms. The microstructural
components of pearlite are reduced for the 34CrMo4 and
42CrMo4 alloys owing to the deformation. However, the
pearlite content increases for the 50CrMo4 and 51CrV4
steels.
– The structures of, in particular martensite but also, in part,
those of bainite and pearlite are finer due to the
deformation.
– The investigations carried out show that the influence of
hot-forming on the hardness value is smaller than that of a
slight variation in the cooling rate.
– On the basisof the widening of bainite’s formation interval,
tendencies are discernible that the upper critical cooling
rate increases due to deformation.
Summary
Continuous cooling transformation diagrams in depend-
ence of increasing deformations were constructed at heating
temperatures of 1200 8C to illustrate heat-treatments
immediately from the hot-forming temperature. These
diagrams show the influence of deformation on the trans-
formation behaviour of the investigated heat-treatable steels
at deformation levels of 30% and 60%.
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Materials Technology
The diffusion driven transformations and formed micro-
structures exhibit weak dependencies on a previous
deformation for the selected testing conditions. For the
diffusionless formation of martensite, the martensite
start-temperature has a tendency to increase with deforma-
tion. The influence of deformation on the microstructural
hardness value is smaller than that of a varied cooling
rate.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the German Research
Foundation (DFG) for their financial support of the work
carried out within the scope of the Collaborative Research
Centre 489, subproject A3, and Dipl. Wirt.-Ing. Chr. Birr for
his scientific support.
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