6.

2
EngineeringMaterials
Heat Treatment of Steel- 6.3

Chapter - 6 COOLING
ERYSLOW
ANNEALING

EXISTING
EXISTING3 STRUCTURE A SLOW
STRUCTURE PROPERTIES ARE
WIPEOUT. METAL
AND
HEAT
IS NOW INA COOLING NORMALISING
Heat Treatment of Steel PROPERTIES OF cONDITION TO
RECEIVE NEW
STEELS
STRUCTURE AND VERY RAD
coOLING
PROPERTIES
HARDENING

Fig. 6.l PRINCIPLE OF HEAT TREATMENT

6.1 INTRODUCTION Purpose of heat treatment:

The reasons for heat treatment are many and The major
The properties of steel depends on the composition and its structure. These varied.
are to produce a satisfactory combination of microstructure and mechanicat
considerations
properties can be improved by either changing its composition (i.e. alloying)
properties so that the metal can fulfil its intended purpose.
or its structure. The structure of steel and thus the properties can be changed
by heat treatment. The intended purposes may be
Relieving internai stresses, and softening for further deformation.
Heat treatment is the most important method of strengthening the metals. It
Refining the grain size to improve mechanical properties.
has an implied meaning. It involves heating the solid
metal within the state.
Thetemperature and time of heating must be strictly controlled, because, it has Improving the machinability.

anéffect on grain size.After attaining desired uniform temperature throughout, Altering the surface conditions, and
are significantly
themetal cooled at specified rate. Mechaniçal properties
is Increasing the corrosion and wear resistance.
by the rate of cooling. Before studying various heat treatment processes, it is desirable to know the
ected
decomposition of austenite and the terms related to the heat treatment
Ppefinition processe.
be defined as the
Thus from the preceeding analysis, (the heat treatment can

e ànd properties of metals and alloys by DEFINITION

process of changing the structure
controlled heating and cooling.) Critical rate of cooling
treatment: The minimum rate of continuous cooling at which austenite transformed into
Stages of heat complete martensite is called critical rate of cooling.
which the structure and therefore
Fig.6.1 illustrate the stages of heat treatment by
The three stages of heat treatment Martensite:
the properties of steels can be changed.
It is very
are Martensite is super saturated solid solution of carbon in a- iron.
a

hard and brittle. Structure of martensite is body centered tetragional.

1. Heating to required temperature
uniform Bainite:
for a period of time to attain
2. Holding at this temperature called soaking. like in appearance.
temperature throughout
the section. This stage is Bainite is a mixture of ferrite and cementite and it is feather
of austenite at about
It is obtained by an isothermal decomposition
3. Cooling the steel at specified rate.
350-450C
(Radiant's) (A.P)
(Radiant's
(A.P
6.4 6.5
Engineering Materials Heat Treatment of Steel-
Sorbite and Troostite:
00
Sorbite and troostite possess the same structure of pearlite (ferrite + cementite), Austen
but only the difference is the size of particles. 723-
Femte
00
af (2
At lower temperature (600°C), i.e., higher rate of cooling, the austenite
is Sorbit
transformed into fine mixture offerrite
and cementite. This structure is called 600

Trobstite
sorbite. Sorbite is weaker but more ductile than troostite.
500
At stillower temperature (550-500°C) i.e. at very high rate of cooling, austenite
Transf
decompose to very fine lamellar structure of the ferrite cementite mixture.
This structure is called troostite.
300
400

Austenite_
n Stable)
ransformation Ends
mation Begj
gins Bainite
ISOTHERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF AUSTENITE (TTT DIAGRAM): Ms

The equilibrium diagram is utilised for fixing the austenitising temperature and 200

predicting the phases that are obtained under equilibrium cooling at a given 100 AUstenite
+Matensilte

composition and temperature. The source of information about

the
----- Maansfe
decomposition of austenite under non-equilibrium conditions is obtained from -100
10 100 1,000 10,000 1,00,000
the TTT diagram, which relates the transformation of the austenite to the time Time, Sec
and temperature conditions to which it is subjected. The öther names for this
diagram the S-curve and C-curve or Bain curve.
are
wwwFig. 6.2 TTT DIAGRAM
steel.
The TTT diagram describes the decomposition of austenite in a given AUSTENITE DECOMPOSITION ON CONTINUOus coOLING
TTT
Therefore, for each steel composition there is a different diagram.
curves

curves are drawn by

(CCT DIAGRAMS)
for eutectoid composition are shown in Fig. 62. These
specimen to austenitising nature of
taking a number of steel specimens. Heating
each
temperature. The?
TTT diagrams are useful in respect of heat treatment as they give
of It has
the
temperature, and then quenching to predetermined
called incubation period.
transformed products of austenite at varying degree a
practical importance to special heat treatment processes such as austempering
cooling. great
transformation of austenite begins after certain time,
the begining and ending of austenite and martempering. However in practice, transformation occurs during
As in the figure points 'a, and 'a,' represent
and continuous cooling. Continuous cooling transformation (CCT)
at 600°C and 400°C are 'b, b diagram
-

decomposition at 700°C. The same points

curve 1 and 2 are drawn through
c respectively. Theand ending of austenite
all the points correlates the transformation, temperature and time during continuous cooling.
transformation. Curve 1, cCT curves are drawn in a similar way as TTT diagram except that, in the
indicating the beginning case of CCT diagrams, point of start and end of austenite
passing through 'a,, b,and c represents
the condition at which austenite transformation
shown in
decomposition) are recorded on continuous cooling curves as
through 'a, b,and cp" represents
begins to decompose while curve 2, passing The interval Fig. 6.3.
decomposition is complete.
the condition at which austenite decomposition of
between the two c u r v e s indicates
condition for the partial
austenite into ferrite and
cementite.

are simple in concept

but are not
Isothermal transformation diagrams
commercial heat treatments which involve
of
representatives of the majority are
operation. However, martempering and austempering
continuous cooling of austinite.
isothermal decomposition
examples of heat treatments that employ
6.6 ter Heat Treatment of Steel- 6.7
Engineering Materias

-TT CURVES
- cCT CURVES

AC

A FURNACE COOLING
8. AIR COOLING
AUSTENITE
..---. COARSE
C. OL COOLING
PEARLITE D.CRITICA RATE OF
910
FERRITE

-~-~-. FINE
PEARLITE
COOLING
E. COOLUNG IN WATER
CEMENTITE

FERRIT AUST AUSTENITE

Ms
723t A AUSTENITE A1,3

- FERRITE

600 CEMENTITE

Fig. 6.3 CCT DIAGRAM PEARLITE PEARLITE

65TRANSFORMATION IN STEEL DURING SLOW COOLING FERRITE

iron-carbon equilibrium diagram

is shown in Fig. 6.4.
The steel portion of Above
steel at 0.3 percent of carbon. 1.2
Consider slow cooling of hypoeutectoid to transform
0.8 1.6
austenite. The austenite begins % CARBON
point 'a' (A, -
point) its structure is
At this point ferrite nucleates
into ferrite when the
temperature reaches point 'a', above Fig. 6.4 TRANSFORMATION OF HYPOEUTECTOID STEEL
a temperature just
austenite and grow unt, at
from grain boundaries of ferrite and austenite.
Note: Hypereutectoid steels transform in a similar way as in case of
and 'b' consists of
the structure between 'a'
point 'b'. Thus, of carbon increasing. hypoeutectoid steel except that the cementite is formed at upper critical point
is smaller although its percentage
The size of austenite to pearlite and instead of ferrite, and the cementite reduces the carbon content in austenite to
containing 0.8 percent carbon is changed
Small size austening and pearlite. that of eutectoid point. (Ferrite in hypoeutectoid steel increases the carbon
structure will be ferrite
point). Thus final
this o c c u r s at point (A,
b -

content in austenite).
Austenite with 0.8%C is transformed into pearlite at A - point.

6 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

These properties
The field of applications of steel depends on its properties.
mechanical working, alloying and heat treatment. Heat
can be varied by
the structure and grain
treatment effects mechanical properties by changing
combination of heating, holding and
size. Heat treatment of steel involves a
the desired conditions. The following
cooling at controlled rates to produce for obtaining the desired
are generally applied to steel
heat treatment processes
conditions.
6.8
Engineering Materias Chapter-6 Heat Treatment of Steel 6.9
1. Annealing to soften the steel
Process:
2. Normalising to refine the structuure
Full annealing consist of
3. Hardening to increase the hardness
4. Tempering (i) heating the hypo-eutectoid steel to a temperature 30 to 50°C above
to eliminate brittleness in hardened steel
(upper critical point) and the same amount above A, (lower critical point)
5. Surface hardening -to provide wear resistance surface with tough for hypereutectoid steel.
core
ii) holding at this temperature for sufficient time to allow necessary changes
In the following sgtions these processes are discussed in details. to occur (i.e. to obtain austenite structure throughout the volume) and
6.7 ANNEALING: then,
(ii) slow cooling in the furnace.
Vn general, the term annealing refers to any heating and cooling operation that
is usually applied to induce softening Depending on the specific purpose, Too high a temperature or too long time at heat may produce a coarsening

annealing processess are classified as follows of the grains which results loss of toughness, hardness and strength.

1. Full annealing The temperature to which the steel is heated depends on the carbon
content. The suitable temperatures for various steels are given
below.
2. Process annealing (Recrystallisation annealing)
TABLE 6.1
3. Spheroidise annealing
Annealing Temperatures
4. Isothermal annealingg Annealing temp. °C.
Type of steel Carbon content
6.7.1 Full Annealing Dead mild less than 0.12% 875-925

treatment of steel, Mild 0.12-0.25% 840 870

The term annealing, when used in connection with heat
as the process of heating 0.25 0.5% 815 840
will mean full annealing. Full annealing may be defined Medium carbon
within a closed furnace by 780 810
the steel to austenite phase and then cooling slowly 0.5 0.99%
putting off the heat supply. High carbon 0.9-1.3% 760 780
to reduce the coarse
Purposes: Annealing is commonly employed for castings and forgings
grain structure prior to machining.
The purposes of full annealing from the
Slow cooling results the equilibrium structures which are predicted
are

Thus the microstructure of annealed steel are as follows.

equilibrium diagram.
(i) To soften the steel,
TABLE 6.2

(ii) To relieve the internal stresses, Microstructures of Annealed Steel.

Type of steel Microstructure after annealing

(iii) To improve machinability.
1. Hypoeutectoid steel Ferrite +peatlite
(iv) To refine the grains, and
2. Eutectoid steel Pearlite
To reduce the hardness. Hypereutectoid steel Pearlite + cementile
(v) 3.

becomes more ductile.

After annealing steel
(A.P)
(Radiant's) (Radiant's)
6.10 Engin cering Materials 6.11
Heat Treatment of Steel-
6.7.2 Process Annealing
6.7.4 Isothermal Annealing:
The main purposes of process annealing are more often
In practice, the process of isothermal annealing is in
use, since it
saves time. In this process the steel is heated above the upper critical temperature
to reduce the distortion of the crystal lattice produced by cold working,
i) and held for a certain time at this temperature to form austenite. Then the steel

to remove the strain hardening i.e., improve the ductility,

is suddenly cooled to a temperature 500 to 100°c below lower critical
temperature. At this temperature the austenite is completely decomposed
to

(iii) to relieve the internal stresses, and form pearlite. Finally, the steel is
cooled in still air.
The
term isothermalis
associated with transformation of austenite at constant temperature. The
o (iv) to obtain a homogeneous fine-grained structure structure obtained in isothermal annealing is similar to that obtained by ful1

Process annealing consists in heating the steel to a temperature 600 700°C annealing.
of steel. The
(i.e. below critical point, A,), holding at this temperature for a prolonged period
This process is widely employed for reducing the hardness alloy
major
limitation of the process is that, it is only small components.
suitable for
and slow cooling.
For heavy components the structure obtained is not uniform.
It should be noted that the process annealing is a sub-critical operation (i.e., operation shown in
The temperature ranges for various types of annealing processes are

is carried below lower critical temperature). For this reason there is no phase change Fig. 6.5.
in the
and the constituents ferite and cementite (i.e., pearlite) remain present
structure throughout the process.
FULL AND
910
isOTHERMAL
ANNEALING
treatment of sheet and wires.
The process annealing is used extensively in the
worked steel in order to restore ductility and softness.
It is also applied to cold
723
gHEKOISING
600
6.7.3 Spheroidise Annealing ZIZIZZITAR. PROGESS ANNEALING

Spheroidise annealing transforms lamellar pearlite into globular type 500FERRITE

400PEARLITE PEARLITE
with carbon in the form of spheroidal carbides). The
(matrix of ferrite 300 CEMENTITE
and strength but good machinability,
spheroidised structure has lowest hardness 200
HYPO 0.8 HYPER
toughness and ductility. EUTECTOID STEEEUTECTOID
TEEL
structure. One method
Various techniques are adopted to obtain a spheroidised
the steel just above the lower critical TEMPERATURE RANGGES FOR ANNEALING PROCESSES
of spheroidising consists in heating -Fig. 6. 5
followed
and prolonged holding at this temperature
temperature (730- 770°C)
by slow cooling to 600°C within the
furnace. The subsequent cooling may be 58NORMALISING :
conducted in still air. This results in a completely
spheroidised structure.
Normalising is the process of heating the steel to above the upper critical
is heated just below the lower critical temperature, temperature (810 930°C) followed by cooling in still air.
In another method, the steel
-

followed by slow cooling.

holding at this temperature for prolonged period,
carbon steel and alloy steel to improve
Purposes
The process is applied to high soft due
Low carbon steels become very for normalising is to adjust mechanical properties to
machinability and ductility. The most common reason

not improve machinability. conditions. The purposes of the normalising are;

spheroidisation and does suit the service
(Radiant's) A.P)
(Radiant's)
(A.P
6.12
Engineering Materials Chapter-8 Heat Treatment of Steel- 6.13
to relieve the internal stresses Normalising temperatures for plain carbon steels are given below :
t o refine the grain structure
Carbon Temperature, °C
(i)Ao improve the machinability
0.2 900
() to improve strength and toughness
0.4 840
Normalising consists of 0.6 800
(1) Heating the steel 30 to 50°C above upper critical
temperature 0.8 780
(A for hypo-eutectoid steel and Am for hyper-eutectoid steel)
(ii) 1.0 840
Holding at this temperature for shorter time to
prevent grain growth. But
the time allowed should be sufficient so that the temperature is uniform 1.2 900
throughout the section, and Normalising Versus Annealing:
(ii) Cooling in air : The cooling rate is the major difference between The essential differences between annealing and norma-lising and furnished
normalising and annealing. The micro structures produced by normalising
below
is similar to that of annealing. But, slightly more rapid cooling results in
finer grained structure than for annealing. The normalised structure of TABLE 6.3
low- alloy steel consists of sorbite (fine pearlite) and fine ferrite. The Differences Between Annealing and Normalising
increased rate of cooling in normalising results high hardness and low
Criterion Annealing Normalising
ductility than annealed steel. The effect of rapid rate of cooling also
increases the strength and toughness of the steel. 1. Temperature range 30-50 C above A, for 30-50°C above upper
hypoentectoid steel and critical points (A, for
Normalising is widely used in industry because it is economical than
more

or casting for
same amount above A hypereutectoid steel.)
annealing. This process is usually performed aftor colling forging
for hypereutectoid steel.
grain refinement and to put steel in the beat condition for machining or
hardening. 2. Method of cooling Cooled within the Cooled in the air i.e.
furnace i.e., slow rate faster rate of cooling
930°C. Temperature
Normalising temperature generally
shown in
varies from
Fig. 6.6.
8100 to of cooling
ranges for normalising are
3. Grains structure Coarse grains Fine grains

1130 4. Properties Annealed steels Normalised steels

possess high ductility possess high strength
NORMALISING
AUSTENITE and low hardness hardness and
910
toughness
A CEM
Cost Takes costly- furnace Cheaper, components
FER+AUS AUST
time spent less time in
A1
600 furnace
500 FERRITE APEARLITE
400

300
PEARLITE L CEMENTITE 69 HARDENING:
200
Hardening may be defined as the process of heating steel to austenite phase
D.B 70
following by rapid cooling in a liquid bath such as water or oil.
NORMALISING
Fig. 6.6 TEMPERATURE RANGES FOR
(A.P)
Radiant's) (Radlant's)
(A.P)
 6.13

Ehapter-6 Heat Treatnent of Steel- below:

6.12 Engineering Materials steels are given
Normalising temperatures for plain carbon
to relieve the internal stresses.
Carbon Temperature, °C*
hto refine the grain structure
0.2 900
(ilto improve the machinability 840
0.4
( t o improve strength and toughness 800
0.6
Normalising consists of
780
above upper critical temperature 0.8
(i) Heating the steel 30 to 50°C
steel) 1.0 840
(A for hypo-eutectoid steel and Am for hyper-eutectoid
shorter time to prevent grain growth. But 900
(ii) Holding at this temperature for 1.2
the time allowed should be sufficient so that the temperature is uniform
Normalising Versus Annealing
and furnished
throughout the section, norma-lising and
essential differences
between annealing and
is the major difference between The
(ii) Cooling in air : The cooling rate
structures produced by normalising below
normalising and annealing. The micro
But, slightly more rapid cooling results in TABLE 6.3
is similarto that of annealing.
The normalised structure of
finer grained structure than for annealing. Differences Between Annealing and Normalising
of sorbite (fine pearlite) and fine ferrite. The
low- alloy steel consists Normalising
increased rate of cooling in normalising
results high hardness and low Criterion Annealing
rate of cooling also 30-50C above upper
than annealed steel. The effect of rapid 30-50°C above Ag for
ductility 1. Temperature range critical points (A, for
and toughness of the steel. hypoentectoid steel and
increases the strength hypereutectoid steel.)
because it is more economical than same amount above A,
Normalising is widely used in industry
colling forging or casting for for hypereutectoid steel.
annealing. This process is usually performed aftercondition for machining or Cooled in the air i.e.
steel in the beat Cooled within the
grain refinement and to put 2. Method of cooling
faster rate of cooling
furnace i.e., slow rate
hardening.
varies from 810° to 930°C. Temperature of cooling
Normalising temperature generally
6.6. Fine grains
rangesfor normalising a r e shown in Fig. 3. Grains structure Coarse grains
Annealed steels Normalised steels
4. Properties
1130 possess high ductility possess high strength
and low hardnessS hardness and
NORMALISING
910 AUSTENITE toughness
Cheaper, components
Takes costly furnace
CEM
5 Cost
time spent less time in
723
FER+AUS AU ST
- - - -
furnace
A1 P
600
E
500 FERRITE A PEARLITE
69 HARDENING:
400 PEARLITE L CEMENTITE

of heating steel to austenite phase

Hardening may be defined as the process
300

liquid bath such as water or oil.

200
,B 2% following by rapid cooling in a

Fig. 6.6
TEMPERATURE RANGE.S FOR NOR MALISING (A.P)
(Radiant's) (Radlant's)
(A.P)
6.14
EngineeringMaterials Rhaaker - Heat Treatment of Steel- 6.15
Purposes:
The purposes of 113C
hardening followed by tempering are:
AUSTENITE
(i) to develop high hardness, wear resistance and ability to cut other
materials.

TLITIT I m,
HARDENINGG AC
ii) to improve strength and toughness.
A+Cem
The hardening process consists of heating9 steel to a temperature 30 to 50°C
for hypoeutectoid 30 to 50°C above Azg point for
above A, point steels and AsF

hypereutectoid steel, holding at this temperature for considerable time to 23

A
Ay,3
complete phase transformation and sudden cooling in water or oil Carbon steels
are usually quenched in water and alloy steels are quenched in6il. The sudden 00 IGH TE MÉ fEMPERING
cooling is called quenching. Quenching is non-equilibrium process and the
cooling rate is greater than or equal to critical rate. Therefore, the martensite 400 MEIUMTEMP TEMPERUNG
structure obtained after cooling is not predicted in phase diagram. After
200 LOW TEMP TEMPERING
quenching, the hypoeutectoid steel has fine grained martensitic structure; and
the structure of hypereutectoid steel consists of martensite embedded with P+F P+Cem

2%C
carbon network. This structure is harder than the martensitic structure of
hypoeutectoid steels, because the cementite crystals are harder than martensite Fig. 6.7 TEMPERATURE RANG.ES FOR HARDENING AND TEMPERING
crystal.
These unfavourable characteristics are eliminated by subsequent heat treatment
The mechanical properties produced as a result of hardening followed by
called tempering.
and the tempering
tempering depend upon the carbon content, the rate of cooling
the austenite grain. A Effect of cooling rate in hardening:
temperature. A high temperature of hardening cdarsens
The properties of harde ned steel are affected by rate of To martensite
structure of this type has a low toughness. Steels with low
carbon (upto 0.3%6)
cooling. obtain
structure the cooling rate should be higher than the critical rate of cooling.
increases with carbon
will not respond to hardening process. The hardness
increase appreciably.
content. Above 0.6% C, the hardness cannot The high rate of cooling increases hardnessand
wear resistance, but may cause
distortion and cracking. Due to lower rate of cooling hardness decreases because
machine parts where high hardness
Hardening is applied to cutting tools and of retained austenite which transforms to pearlite.
and wear resistance is desirable.
The temperature ranges for hardening and tempering
are shown in Fig. 6.7. It 610 TEMPERING:
range for hardening
and annealing for steel is a process of heating hardened steel to a temperature below lower
may be noticed that temperature Tempering is
same. the
Increasing of tempering results in decreasing the hardness
temperature critical temperature, followed by slow cooling. Tempering renders the steel tough

of steel. and ductile.

is not suitable for industrial Purposes
Sturcture of steel obtained after hardening
hardness in steel,
applications because of the following reasons
As mentioned earlier, the hardening increases strength and
brittleness. Thus the steel
brittle and is not stable. but decreases ductility and toughness i.e. imparts
Martensite obtained due to quenching is extremely tempered to relieve
under hardened condition is rarely used and is subsequently
which
internal stresses in the hardened steel
Quenching produce high brittleness.
results heavy distortions and cracking
of the part in service.
A.P)
(Radiant's) (Radiant's>
(A. P
6.16 6.17
Engineering Materials Chapter- Heat Trea tment of Steel.
sorbite.
martensite into troostite
or
The main purposes of tempering are: causes transformation of
lempering structures consists
Formation of these structures depends on temperature. These
(i) to reduce the thermal stresses, from those pioduced
of ferrite andfinely divided cementite, and are different
of structure due to
(i) to stabilise the structure of the metal by slow cooling, which are of laminated form. The change
hardening and tempering is shown in Fig. 6.8.
(ii) to reduce the brittleness, and
(iv) to increase the toughness and ductility.
The process involves heating the hardened steel below lower critical temperature, AUSTENITE

holding at this temperature for sufficient time and slow cooling in air.
as the steel
The tempering temperature must not exceed the critical point,
benefits of hardening treatment would be lost.
would become austenite and the
tools are
The temperatures are related to the function of components. Cutting
and toughness are required
tempered between 230 -300°C. If greater ductility
the steel is tempered at 300°C to
as in case of shafts and high strength bolts,
with temper colours are given
600°C. Tempering temperatures for tools along TEMPERING
in table 6.4.
sORBITE
TABLE 6.4 (FINE FERRITE
ENTITE
Temperatures
Tempering Colours and
MARTENS
Tempering Applications
Temperature
Fig. 6.
oC colour :
Scribers, hand scrapers Classification of Tempering processes
220 Pale straw can be
Depending on the tempering temperature, the tempering processes
Dark straw Hammer faces, turning tools
230 classified as
shear blades, drills
Yellow brown Milling cutters, Low temperature tempering (150 250°C)
240 1.
Taps and dies
250 Brown 2. Medium temperature tempering (350 -450°C)
punches, twist drills, reamers
260 Red-brown Centre
3 High temperature tempering (500 650°C)
270 Purple
Press tools, axles
Low temperature tempering (150°C 250°C): The purposes of low
Chisels temperature teinpering are :
280 Deep purple
Screw driver blades
(i) to relieve internal stresses, and
290 Violet
Spings (ii) to increase ductility without changing the structure

300 Blue
Constructional steels, interval from 150°C to 250 C. The
Deep blue The process is done in the temperature
400 loads; for this reason, the process
Shafts and high strength tempered component cannot carry dynamic
Black red tools and the parts that have been
500 is applied to cutting tools, measuring
Dull red bolts. carburised and surface hardened.
600 A.P)
Radinnt'r
 Heat Treatment of Steel - 6.19
6.18 Engineering Materias
2. Medium-temperature tempering (350°C - 450°C): In this case the
hardened steel is heated between the temperature range 350°C and 450°c. AUSTENITE
TRANS START
The object of heating upto this temperature is to change the martensite
-TRANS ENOS
structure into troosite. As a resut of change in structure, the steels are
become more tough and ductile, but the hardness is considerably reduced.
The process is more useful in case where strength and reliability are
more important than extreme hardness. Medium temperature tempering
AUSTENITE w BAINITE

is commonly employed for coils and laminated springs.

TIME

3. High temperature tempering (500°C 650°C): High temperature

tempering consists of heating the steel to the temperature intervals of
Flg.6.9 CoOLING CURVE FOR AUSTEMPERING
500C-650C. At this temperature martensite is transformed to sorbit. In
steels are nearly same as
this process the internal stresses are completely eliminated and the The hardness and strength of the austempered
and impact strength are
toughnes5 is improved. conventional hardened tempered steels, but ductility
made of high
Sorbitic steels are softer and more ductile than troostitic steels. Sorbite and This method is applied for small size components,
usually higher.
carbon steel or low-alloy steel.
troostite are usually known as tempered martensite.
wheels, axles shaft and
High temperature tempering is applied to gear 12 MARTEMPERING
connecting rods. with minimum distortion and residual
Martempering is the hardening process
The effect of heat treatment on mechanical propeties is presented table 6.5. stresses. The process consists of heating the steel to the hardening temperature
above the critical rate of cooling) down to
TABLE 6.5 and then cooled suddenly (at
at which martensite formation
of steel temperature just above 'M, point (temperature
Effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties held there sufficient time to equalise
containing 0.5%G begins and is nearly equal to 240°C). It is
is too short to decompose
Hardnes the temperature throughout the section. But the time
Heat treatment Tensile Ductillity%reduction heat austenite, From above M, point it is cooled in air.
into Bainite.
temp. of strength %elongation A schematic representation of martempering is shown
in Fig. 6.10.
MN/m2 VHN
840C
20 52 125
Annealed 550
15 35 155 TRANS
Normalised 750 |STARTS
1 0 480 TRANS ENDS
Hardened 1505
(oil quenched)
5 20 370
Tempered at 300°C 1291
14 48 200 AUST
Tempered at 600°C
60
6 AUSTEMPERING: M
the hardening temperature range MARTENSITE
In austempering, the steel part is heated to
and then quenched down to a temperature
of 300°C. It is held there sufficient
CURV'E FOR MARTEMPERING

time to decompose austenite into Bainite,

then it is cooled, at any rate, to room Fig. 6.10 coOLING

6.9.
of austempering is shown in Fig. A.P)
temperature. A schematic representation
(Radiant's) (Radiant's)
6.20 6.21
Engineering Materias Chapter6 Heat Treatment of Steel-
The martensitic transformation takes place under lower cooling rate and Chemical heat treatment involves the change in composition of the surface layers.
therefore the internal stresses are reduced to greater extent. This method can of case
This method of treatment is called case hardening. The advantages
be used for heavy sections and the pieces of irregular shape. hardening over the surface hardening are :
(i) the process is independent of the shape of article.
63SUB-ZERO TREATMENT (ii) the effect of surface overheating can be eliminated, and
Sub-zero treatment is widely used to eliminate retained austenite in the of metal
(ii) the properties are determined by structure and composition
martensite structure of hardened steels. An increased content of martensite
increases the hardness, cutting ability of tools and stabilising the dimensions 6.15.I Methods of Surface Hardening
high hardness is
of the steel part. Surface hardening is a selective heat treatment in which
a
is retained.
imparted to the surface layers of the work while the tough
core
The process consists in cooling the hardened steel to a sub-zero temperature
are two
(from 75C to 195°C). As a result, a considerable part of retained
austenite *According to the method of heating, the surface hardening processes

is transformed into martensite. types.

Sub-zero treatment is most effective for steel containing carbon from 1. Flame hardening, and
0.6% to 0.7%. The process is used mainly for measuring gauges, ball bearings
2. Induction hardening
and tools.
Flame hardening:
6 VACUUM HARDENING: The process of flame hardening consists of heating the
metal surface by using
surface is brought to the
an Oxyacetylene flame. Only a thin layer of the heated
are heated in vacuum furnace
to prevent
In vacuum hardening the components The flame is followed by a stream of cold water
which
uniform temperature throughout the hardening temperature.
possible oxidation, and to maintain
6.11 (a)). Small
in gas or liquid bath depending upon quenches the heated layer of metal and thereby hardens it (Fig.
components. Then, they are quenched and then quenched. Parts of cylindrical shape
parts may be heated individually
the requirements. their surfaces to the flame of the
may be slowly rotated and heated by exposing
hardening flame-hardened successfully include
The advantages of vacuum are:
torch (Fig. 6.11 (b)). Parts which may be
is easy. machine tool beds, gears, cams and camshafts.
Controlling the process parameters
minimum. The principle of flame hardening is illustrated in Fig. 6.11.
Distortion and dimensional changes are

|FEED
615SURFACE HARDENING ROTATION FLAME
industrial products (e.g. cams, gears, camshafts, BURNER
There are many important
surface and a tough core. FUEL
GAS
have a hard, wear resistant
piston pins, etc.) should two methods NAI
ATER
obtained by the following FLAME
Such conditions in the steel are SPRAY
sOFT
Surface hardening, and
HARR LANT
1.
COOLANT
2.
Chemical heat treatment QUENCHED
SURFACE
HEATED
SURFACE
the SPRAYERR
steel parts are heated to
the surface layers of the wORK_
In surface hardening, only in water or s o m e
other medium. JET OF
COOLANT

and it is then quenched

hardening temperature over chemical heat treatment as
it requires
(A) (B)
Surface hardening is advantageous of the component is heated
less time. Since only a small portion Fig. 6. 11 PRINC!IPLE OF FLA ME HARDENING
appreciably -

to crack. A.P)
there is a minimum tendency
(Radiant's) (Radiant's)
(A.P)
 6.21
6.20 EngineeringMaterias Eapterc6 Heat Treatment of Steel-
surface layers.
The martensitic transformation takes place under lower cooling rate and Chemical heat treatment involves the change in composition of the
The advantages of case
therefore the internal stresses are reduced to greater extent. This method can This method of treatment is called case hardening.
be used for heavy sections and the pieces of irregular shape. hardening over the surface hardening a r e :
of article.
(i) the process is independent of the shape
63SUB-ZERO TREATMENT (ii) the effect of surface overheating be eliminated, and
can

of metal
Sub-zero treatment is widely used to eliminate retained determined by structure and composition
austenite
of
in the (ii) the properties are

martensite structure of hardened steels. An increased

increases the hardness, cutting ability of tools
content martensite
and stabilising the dimensions 6.15.1 Methods of Surface Hardening
high hardness is
selective heat treatment in which
a
of the steel part. Surface hardening is a
while the tough core is retained.
The process consists in cooling the hardened steel to a sub-zero temperature imparted to the surface layers of the work
are two
surface hardening processes
(from 75°C to -
195°C). As a result, a considerable part of retained austenite
According to the method of heating, the
is transformed into martensite. types.
Sub-zero treatment is most effective for steel containing carbon from 1. Flame hardening, and
ball bearings
0.6% to 0.7%. The process is used mainly for measuring gauges, 2. Induction hardening
and tools.
Flame hardening
the metal surface by using
T4 VACuUM HARDENING The process of flame hardening consists of heating
thin layer of the heated surface is brought to the
furnace to prevent
heated in vacuum an Oxyacetylene flame. Only a
In vacuum hardening the components are
of cold water which
hardening temperature. The flame is followed by
a stream
uniform temperature throughout the
possible oxidation, and to maintain hardens it (Fig. 6.11 (a)). Small
in gas or liquid bath depending upon
quenched quenches the heated layer of metal and thereby
components. Then, they are Parts of cylindrical shape
parts may be heated individually and then quenched.
the requirements. their surfaces to the flame of the
may be slowly rotated
and heated by exposing
flame-hardened successfully include
The advantages of vacuum hardening are:
torch (Fig. 6.11 (b)). Parts which may be
machine tool beds, gears, cams and camshafts.
Controlling the process parameters is easy.
minimum. The principle of flame hardening is illustrated in Fig. 6.11.
Distortion and dimensional changes are

JFEED
615 SURFACE HARDENING ROTATION FLAME
gears, camshafts, BURNER
There are many important
industrial products (e.g. cams,
FUEL
surface and a tough core. GAS
have a hard, wear resistant
piston pins, etc.) should the following two
methods. WATER
FLAME
are obtained by SPRAY
Such conditions in the steel
HAR sOFT
1. Surface hardening, and coOLANT

HEATED
cooLANT
Chemical heat treatment QUENCHED SURFACE
2 the
SURFACE
steel parts are heated to
SPRAYER

In surface hardening, only

the surface layers of the medium. WORK JET OF
in water or some other cOOLANT
and it is then quenched
hardening temperature chemical heat treatment as it requires (A) (B)
over
Surface hardening is advantageous heated
Since only a small portion
of the component is
appreciably less time. Fig. 6.11 PRINCIPLE OF FLA ME HARDENING
to crack. (A.P)
there is a minimum tendency
(Radiant's) (Radiant's

(A.P)
 6.22 6.23
Engineering Materias Chapter-6 Heat Treatment of Steel
h e process is recommended for medium carbon and low alloy steels. 6.16. Carburising 3
Induction hardening of a iow
Carburising invoives ihe diffusion uf uaibon into the surface layers
The procedure for induction hardening is the same as flame hardening. But it in contact with carbonace ous materials. It is carried
the carbon steel by heating
high temperature is produced by high frequency alternating current. The surface out in the temperature range of 900- 950°C in solid, liquid and gaseous media.
to be hardened is enclosed
(without contact) in an induction coil. The passage In each treatment the transfer of carbon from carbonaceous medium takes place
of current through the coil causes induced current to heat the steel usually carbon monoxide.
very rapidly via the gaseous state,

to the hardening range., and is immediately followed by spray quenching. Carburising is most widely used for securing hard. wear resistant surface and a

Note: Flame tough core.

hardening and induction hardening are not specified in C-14
syllabus
The
: !:iden
1The two principal tupes of the processes are
us!ieicd :: 5.2. Carburising. and
1 Solid (pack)
2. Gas carburising.
Solid carburising or Pack carburising:
in a ieai resisiani aiioy bux
in solid carburising. the componenis are piaced
HI iitieu witii carvuiiser itiartvaij uixeu wiii a n eneiyisei ivaiu1
Latvuiaieu
to the
The purpose of these energiser is
ALPAIOR increàse
sodium carbonale).

: .
i! i::, :it..

combines with carbon to form carbon

monoxide. Carbon monoxide unstable
the iron suríat
at that lennoralurp anl is tlorompospel upn eonlacting

according to the reaction

However when
ne>s ot surtae hadenina bu n d u r t n is exjPnsiv 2 COCo, + C
i l t a l parts tu be surlae hardened, this proc>s Is
the steei suríace and Fe C
" i are
inciude The atom1c carbons Is absorbed (by diffusion) by
is

Faius wincin are mduction hdrdened

un ni nui viin
i.
1l . iormed
..

re te.,
a high nardness and wear
The tormation ot Fe,t on the surtace gives very
R NINL i.arvuIsei >leei is aiways quenmiei m oruer io atiiieve iiaxIu
Tesistance

it .iir benefit from the carburising treatment.

'
ir iin i i
llol. hln)
iO mAke it hard .ind W'ar r'Istan I
Gas carburisIng
furnace chamber fled i t h
iTid ut iitight sealed
Cas carburising is and propane More coften.
C,H,).
caibuisiug ya» (hydrocarbons CH,
methane
are heatel n
the chamber at a given speed. parts The
the gas flows through
950C. At this temperature. hydrocarbons
furnace to the temperature of 900 absord the
formation ot tree carbon. The
steel surface
Nitriding decompose with the
carbon liberated in the process.
3. Cyanidng and Curbunmtidny A P
R.idi.ut si (Rdiant'sF
A.
6.22
Enginecring Materials Chapter-6 Heat Treatment of Steel 6.23
The process is recommended for medium carbon and low alloy steels.
Induction hardening :
6.16. Carburising
Carburising invoives ihe diffusion uf Labun into the surface layers of a low
The procedure for induction hardening is the same as flame hardening. But
the
high temperature is produced by high frequency alternating current. The surface
carbon steel by heating it in contact
950°C
materials. It is
with carbonaceous
and gaseous media.
carried
to be hardened is
enclosed (without contact) in an induction coil. The passage
out in the temperature range of900-
in liquid solid.
In each treatment the transfer of carbon from carbonaceous medium takes place
of current through the coil induced current to heat the steel very rapidly carbon monoxide.
causes via the gase ous state, usually
to the hardening range. and is immediately followed by spray quenching. Carburising is most widely used for securing hard, wear resistant surface anda

Note:
L.
Flame
hardening and induction hardening are not specified in C-14 syllabus tough core.

Th-ir .f. The two principal tupes of the processes are

: :des: r i d F;. 5.12.
1 Solid pack) Carburising. and
2 Gas carburising.
Solid carburising or Pack carburising:
ieai lesisiani aitoy buxx
in solid carburising, ihe componenis are piaced
in a

HIG iiied wiih carvuiser íciiarLuaij lixei wiiii ail eneiyiser jvaliuu Laivuuaie u
LLAIOR
The purpose of these energiser is to increase the
sodium carbonale).

Carbon monoxide unstable

combines with carbon to form carbon monoxide.
at hat leinnoralure and is loromposeel u p n conlacting the iron suirfat

according to the reaction

However when
i e>s of surtae handening bu nndurton Is exjpensivy
2 COCo, + C
iie neal parts ale lu be surluee hardened, this proess Is
inardened inciude The atomic carbons Is absorbed (by diffusion) by the steei surface and Fe C is

ai aui eiin eu. Paius wiicii ate núucion

n i.t.. . tr... iormed
Fe te,
nardness ana wear
ot the surtace gives a very high
R NINL
Ihe tormation re on

resistanee t.arvuI Isei steei is aiways queicied m oruer iu atiieve lnax'Iu

benefit from the carburising treatment.

r'sIstan I allot auf no

O mAke in h r d .indd w'ar
Gas carburising
sealed furnuce chambe: flled ith
tight
Cas carburising is i d u t i oten,
1 e hardenn jpn'eS cli>>llied methane CH, and propane C,H). More
aburising ya» (hydrocarbons are heated m
The parts
the gas flows through the chamber at a given speed.
950°C. At this temperature. hydrocarbons
furnace to the temperature of 900
tormation ot Iree carbon. The
steel surface absorb the
Nitrdin decompose with the
carbon liberated in the process
3. Cyanidng iind Carbuntidny AP)
R.id.Iut sl (Rudiunt's
 6.24

The
Engineering Materials hapter-6 Heat Treatment of Steel-
6.25
aduantages of gas carburising are: Carbonitriding:
(i) Operation time is less. a single
Carbonitriding involves the addition of carbon and nitrogen (in
(ii) Plant is more operation) by heating the steel in a gaseous mixture of ammonia and
compact for given output.
(ii) Carbon content of the surface hydrocarbons.
layers can be controlled easily, and resistance and fatigue
These processes increase the surface hardness, wear
(iv) The process is very suitable for mass
production. limit. They are specially effective for medium and small parts such as gears,

6.16.2 Nitriding: pistons, pins, Mitma

small shafts, etc.
BPpde
AMA AUby
Nitriding consists of
introducing nitrogen into the surface of the steel. Nitriding
is usually done
500-600°C. Parts (machined to accurate size and heat treated)
at

are placedn in a gas-tight chamber through which ammonia is allowed to

circulate. this temperature interval ammonia dissociates according to the
following reaction.
turhor deab tetment
meamend
Canbor
duvotopmeat c herones
proceRs
3H N
herdne
NH, =
+

and the atomic nitrogen that forms diffuses into the steel surface. The atomic
nitrogen combines with elements in the steel to form nitrides. This gives extreme
uenehsng
olevaopmengturtho
Aeas

hardness to the surface. The nitrided case is usually from 0.2 to

medium carbon and alloy steels. Quenching is not required

hardness/and therefore the parts do not tend to crack. Since
0.4
mm
and no machining is done after nitriding. The process is usually applied to
for development of
the
deep
parts are slowly
Peeyuaed
cooledCno further heat treatment is required. C

resistance, corrosion resistance and fatigue

strength
Nitriding increases the wear
it requires more time
of the steel. Since nitriding is done at low temperature
shallow hardening.
than gas carburising and produces relatively

6.16.3 Cyaniding and Carbonitriding

are

Cyaniding is case hardening which both carbon andbased

process in
nitrogen
on the
is
added to the surface layers of the steel. (The, process
atoms of
the formation of free
decomposition of molten cyanides salts with
carbon and nitrogen which diffuse
into the surface.
at
moltén salt bath (maintained
is placed in the
The steel to be case hardened with about 60% of
about 40% sodium cyanide,
800C to 900°C) consisting of the steel will absorb
sodium chloride. At this temperature
barium carbonate and of a cyanide case is
about
the bath. The usual depth
carbon and nitrogen from
0.i to 0.3 mm. (A.P)
Radiant's) (Radiant's
(A.P)
6.26
Engineering Materias
Heat Treatment of Steel- 6.27
Carburising - Enriching the surface of low carbon steel with carbon.

Summary - Involves heating the compo-nent in carbonaceous

medium at 940°C and then quenching.
Nitriding - Introducing the nitrogen, into the surface so that
Heat treatment -

The process of controlled heating and cooling to obtain hardness is increased due to formation of
desired structure and prope-rties. nitrides.
Cyaniding Process of adding carbon and nitrogen on the
Annealing Heating metal (steel) to a temperature abovè the trans-
formation range and cooling within the furnace. surface of metal (steel).
Carbonitriding -
Process of adding carbon and nitrogen.
Intended to soften the steel and increase the ductility.
Involves heating the metal (steel) in a gaseous mixture
Normalising -

Heating a metal (steel) above the upper critical point rich in carbon and nitrogen.
and cooling in air.,
Reason for normalising is to obtain the properties
suitable for service conditions.

tempefature above the

Hardening Heating metal (steel) to a

cooling in oil or
transformation range and sudden

water
which is hard
Austenite is transformed into martensite,
and brittle.
below owercritical point and
Temperings Heating hardened steel
cooling in air.
or
martensite into troostite
Intended to change the
characteristics in steel
sorbite so that the undesirable
a r e eliminated.
lower
austenite into Bainite at
Process of changing
Austempering
tempe-rature (300°C).
into martensite with
the austenite
Process of changing distortion.
Martempering stresses and crystal
minimum internal
with
resistance hardening surface
Hard and wear
hardening the
Surface o b t a i n e d either by
tough core may be induction
hardening o r
surface layers (Flame chemical composition of
hardening) or changing the
or Nitri-ding).
(Carburising
the surface layer
(A.P)
(Radiant's) (Radiant's