OVERVIEW

Transactions of The Indian Institute of Metals

Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009, pp. 113-122

Microstructure and properties of high strength aluminium alloys

for structural applications
A.K. Mukhopadhyay
Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory, Hyderabad-500 058, India

E-mail: ashim_mukhopadhyay@yahoo.com

Received 19 December 2007

Accepted 01 November 2008 Keywords:
Online at www.springerlink.com Al-Zn-Mg±Cu alloys; alloy design principles; trace alloying
© 2009 TIIM, India additions; impurities; microstructure-property relationships

Abstract
This article discusses the fundamental basis of high strength Al alloy design and describes the role of alloying elements, mechanical processing
parameters and heat treatments toward the evolution of microstructure that controls the desired properties i.e. strength, fracture toughness,
stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance, fatigue crack initiation and propagation resistance, and weldability in 7xxx series Al alloys. The
beneficial effects of suitable micro/trace alloying elements, and deleterious effects of certain impurity elements on a variety of properties
are further discussed within the present context.

1. Introduction the latter should give rise to a sufficient volume fraction of

second phase precipitates upon artificial aging in a two-
Wrought compositions that result in 0.2% tensile PS phase field following solution treatment in a single phase
values close to about 500 MPa are considered as high field and subsequent quenching (usually in water at ambient
strength Al alloys. Accordingly, peak aged Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Cr temperatures). The strength increases with increasing volume
base 7075 T6 (having 0.2% PS = 500 MPa) is considered as fraction and decreasing size of the precipitate (Fig. 1) [1].
high strength Al alloy. Whilst, the SCC resistant alloy 7075 Precipitation hardening is further a strong function of shape
T73 with 0.2% PS = 430 MPa falls into the category of and habit plane of the strengthening precipitates. “Shape
medium strength Al alloys. In fact, the alloy 7075 T73 has hardening” [2] arises because the plate-shaped and the rod-
the strength level similar to those of the peak aged, Cu-free, shaped precipitates result in 2 and 1.75 times more
weldable Al-Zn-Mg alloys 7039, 7017 etc. During the last strengthening, respectively than the equivalent number of
four decades, the major focus on Al alloy research, therefore, spherical particles of the same volume [3]. The strength
has had been the development of Al-Zn-Mg-Cu alloys to
obtain 0.2% PS values more than 500 MPa together with the Table 1 : Maximum Solid Solubility of Selected Elements in
desired SCC resistance. Efforts are simultaneously being Aluminium
directed toward the development of high strength, Cu-free Elements Max. Solubility At Temperatures
weldable Al-Zn-Mg base alloys. It is to be noted that it is (wt%) (°C)
always a combination of properties that are to be achieved
by a structural material for a specific application, and this Ag 55.6 556
requires a thorough understanding and optimization of Be ~0.08 645
various metallurgical processes, phenomena and parameters
towards the development of these alloys. It is the purpose Cr 0.80 661
of this article to discuss and understand such metallurgical Cu 5.7 547
principles.
Ge 7.2 424
Li 4.2 601
2. Fundamental basis of high strength Al alloy Mg 17.4 450
design
Mn 1.68 657
2.1 Precipitation hardening Sc 0.38 660

For a binary age hardening system, the alloying element Si 1.65 577
must have a reasonable solid solubility in Al (see Table 1 Ti 1.3 665
listing the maximum solid solubility of a few selected elements
Zn 70.0 443
in Al) and the age hardening principle is that the solubility
must decrease with decreasing temperatures. Furthermore, Zr 0.28 660
114 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009
Fig. 1 : An estimate of precipitation hardening in Al alloys as
functions of volume fraction and size of the precipitate.
enhancement increases with the aspect ratio of the
precipitates. Further, for a given volume fraction and number
density of precipitates per unit volume, the Orowan increment
in critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) produced by {111}Al
plates is larger than that produced by {100}Al plates [4]
contributing to “habit plane hardening” [2].
Table 2 shows the total solute content, shape and habit
plane of the major strengthening precipitates present in peak
aged (T6) temper of various precipitation hardening, wrought
Al alloys. Table 2 also shows the 0.2% tensile PS values in
the T6 temper of these alloys. In general, the strength
increases with increasing solute content (i.e. as the volume
fraction of the precipitate increases). However, the Al-Li-Cu-
Mg base alloy 8090, having the highest solute content (10.46
at%), shows strength level considerably lower than that of
alloy 7075 (having solute content of 6.13 at%). This is
directly related to the differences in the shape and habit
plane of the precipitates formed in these two alloys. This
follows that the presence of a high volume fraction of fine
and uniformly distributed precipitates having a plate shape
(preferably with a high aspect ratio) and {111}Al habit plane
causes a very high level of hardening in Al alloys.
2.1.1 Role of major alloying elements
The first major alloying element is always the one having
adequate solid solubility in Al (see Table 1). The successful,
Table 2: Solute Content, Precipitate Morphology and Peak Aged Strength of Selected, Commercial,
Wrought Al Alloys
Alloy Type Solute
Content
(at%)
6061 (H 20)(Al-Mg-Si) 1.93
6351 (H 30)(Al-Mg-Si) 1.93
2219(Al-Cu) 3.04
2014 (H 15)(Al-Cu-Mg-Si) 3.68
2024(Al-Cu-Mg) 3.93
7075(Al-Zn-Mg-Cu) 6.13
7050(Al-Zn-Mg-Cu) 6.33
7055(Al-Zn-Mg-Cu) 7.02
8090(Al-Li-Cu-Mg) 10.46
commercial Al alloys contain a second major alloying element.
This element either encourages the nucleation of precipitates
formed in the constituent binary system or induces the
nucleation of fresh binary/ternary precipitates, thus
improving the age hardening potential of the resultant alloy
system. It is to be noted that the age hardening potential of
the ternary Al alloys become commercially attractive when
one of the major alloying element has a larger (+) atomic
radius than aluminium while the other major alloying element
has a smaller (-) atomic radius than aluminium (hereafter
termed the “± effect”) [5]. The examples of successful
commercial Al alloys based on this “± effect” are Al-Zn-Mg,
Al-Cu-Mg, Al-Mg-Si etc. First, the tendency to form alloy
compounds increases by the presence of atoms of varying
sizes. Second, the influence of the “± effect” is to reduce the
strain energy of the lattice. Furthermore, it greatly increases
the stability of the solute clusters, classically known as
Guinier-Preston (G-P) zones, that form first in most age
hardening Al alloys immediately following decomposition of
the super saturated solid solution upon solution treatment
and quenching. The presence of atoms of ± atomic sizes
within the G-P zones tends to cancel the misfit strains, thereby
providing stability to the G-P zones. The stability of G-P
zones in encouraging the next intermediate phase in the
hierarchy of the precipitation sequence in age hardening Al
alloys is significant.
The successful, commercial Al alloys may further contain
a third major alloying element. The role of such alloying
elements is either to accelerate the precipitation processes in
the constituent ternary systems and / or to form fresh binary/
ternary/quaternary phase precipitates, thus further
strengthening the resultant alloy systems. The examples of
such alloys available commercially are Al-Zn-Mg-Cu, Al-Mg-
Si-Cu etc, where Cu is the third major alloying element. The
recently developed Al-Ge-Si-Cu alloy is mention worthy in
this regard, wherein the role of Cu is to accelerate and
stabilize the lath, rather than the spherical morphology of the
GeSi precipitates, as well as to form precipitates in the
constituent Al-Cu system, thus greatly increasing the age
hardening potential of the alloy [6].
2.1.2 Role of minor alloying elements
All successful commercial aluminium alloys contain
dispersoid forming elements such as Cr, Mn, Zr etc. These
Precipitate Precipitate Habit 0.2% PS in
Type/Shape Plane T6 Temper
(MPa)
Ec (Mg2Si) / rod {100} 275
Ec (Mg2Si) / rod {100} 285
Tc (Al2Cu) / plate {100} 290 (T87=395)
Sc (Al2CuMg) / Lath /
G-P-B Zones / rod {210} 410
Sc (Al2CuMg) / Lath {210} 400
Kc / Plate {111} 500
Kc / Plate {111} 550
Kc / Plate {111} 600
Gc (Al3Li) / Spherical + Cube-Cube + 415
S (Al2CuMg) / Laths {210}
 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009 115

elements form compounds with Al as well as with other

alloying elements (e.g. Al12Mg2Cr, Al20Cu2Mn3, Al3Zr etc)
during the homogenization treatment and such precipitates
in turn inhibit grain growth and recrystallization during
subsequent thermal and mechanical processing of these
alloys. In this regard, the beneficial role of Sc as a
recrystallization inhibiting element has also proven
significant [7]. Most commercial Al alloys also contain about
0.05 to 0.1 wt% Ti (commonly added in the form of Tibor/
Ticar) to refine the ingot grain size. The role of Sc (when
present together with Zr) as a grain refiner has proven rather
significant, [7,8] although Sc addition has been limited to
non-commercial/special alloys, and this is partly because Sc
is scarce and expensive.
Commercial Al alloys, especially those rich in Mg, may
further contain small additions of Be. Under appropriate
conditions, Be additions (about 0.02 wt%) are made to greatly
reduce the rapid formation of thick oxide films during melting,
casting, heat treatment and scrap recycling. Trace additions
of Ag (0.3-0.4 wt%) to high strength 7xxx series Al alloys
have the effect of improving weldability [9,10] and to greatly
improve the SCC resistance in Cu-free Al-Zn- Mg alloys [10].

2.2 Nucleation of precipitates

2.2.1 Al-Zn-Mg system

In precipitation hardening alloy systems, the nucleation

of precipitates occurs in the order of increasing precipitate:
matrix interfacial energy. Most investigators agree that the
precipitation reactions in these alloys occur in the following
sequence: G-P ZonesoKcoK(MgZn2) and T [(AlZn)49Mg32]
/ [Al2Mg3Zn3]. Upon solution treatment and quenching,
the decomposition of the supersaturated solution of these
alloys begins with the formation of G-P zones. The G-P
zones contain both Zn and Mg. Stress free, and therefore,
the spherical shape of the G-P zones is the result. In naturally
aged samples, the fully coherent G-P zones are the only
aging product in these alloys [11-12].
When the alloy is quenched from the solution treatment
temperature to water at ambient temperature, the solid
solution becomes super saturated with solutes as well as
vacancies (the equilibrium defects). The quenched-in excess
vacancies are known to play a decisive role in the diffusion
of solute atoms to form G-P zones during or immediately after
quenching and subsequent natural aging. Studies have
indicated that vacancy rich nuclei, formed during or
immediately after quenching, act as the nucleation sites for
both Kc and T phases during subsequent artificial aging of
these alloys [5,13,14]. The semi-coherent Kc precipitates form
as thin plates on the {111}Al plane. The Kc phase has an HCP
structure with a = 0.496 nm and c = 1.403 nm [12,15]. The
non-coherent, equilibrium K (MgZn2) phase, also having an
HCP structure with a = 0.516-0.522 nm and c = 0.849-0.860 nm,
forms as coarse plates on multiple habit planes in the matrix
during over aging. The formation of h phase, however, begins
at the grain boundary early in the artificial aging cycle. The
equilibrium T phase has a cubic structure with a = 1.45 nm.
The T phase is stabilized with higher Mg:Zn ratios and at
elevated temperatures.
Figure 2 (a) represents a transmission electron micrograph
showing the presence of spherical G-P zones in a naturally
aged, ternary Al-Zn-Mg alloy [11,12]. This micrograph,
showed, for the first time, the presence of G-P zones in a
naturally aged Al-Zn-Mg base alloy. Figure 2 (b) represents
a high resolution transmission electron micrograph showing
Fig. 2 : (a) TEM bright field (BF) image and (b) HRTEM image
showing G-P zones formed at room temperature in a
ternary Al-Zn-Mg alloy and (c) HRTEM image showing
plates (one marked E) formed in a peak aged, ternary
Al-Zn-Mg alloy.
the presence of fully coherent, nearly spherical G-P zones in
the similarly treated ternary alloy. Figure 2 (c) represents a
high-resolution transmission electron image showing the Kc
plates formed in a peak aged ternary Al-Zn-Mg alloy. The
presence of very fine and thin Kc plates in the heat treated
microstructure is noteworthy. The Zn:Mg ratios in the G-P
zones and in the Kc precipitates range between 1 and 1.5 and
the variability in the results could be due to variations in
factors that include alloy composition, aging temperature
and aging time [16]. The Zn:Mg ratio in the K phase, on the
other hand, is found to be 2.1:1. This is very close to the
expected equilibrium concentration MgZn2.
2.2.2 Al-Zn-Mg-Cu system
Cu additions to Al-Zn-Mg system provide the basis for
developing the high strength, SCC resistant, commercial Al-
Zn-Mg-Cu alloys. The influence of the Cu addition goes
back to changes occurring already in the initial clustering
process [17]. Compared to the spherical G-P zones observed
in ternary Al-Zn-Mg alloys, two types of G-P zones i.e.
spherical and ellipsoidal could be present in Al-Zn-Mg-Cu
alloys [17]. The ellipsoidal G-P zones contain Cu and these
116 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009

G-P zones readily act as the nucleation centres for the Kc

precipitates. This is how the Cu additions accelerate the
aging process and considerably improve the strength of the
quaternary alloys [17]. More recent studies using Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu base 7050 alloys, [18] however, did not find differences
among the G-P zones with respect to the Cu content. Their
studies demonstrated that it is the elongated, Zn-rich, less
stable G-P zones that readily nucleate the Kc precipitates, and
that the Mg-rich, relatively stable G-P zones are less efficient
in nucleating the Kc precipitates. One common observation
made by all these studies points toward the fact that the Kc
precipitates are nucleated by the pre-existing G-P zones.

2.3 Optimization of alloy compositions

2.3.1 Al-Zn-Mg system

Table 3 shows the alloy compositions of selected,

commercial 7xxx series Al alloys. For ternary alloys, both the
tensile strength and the susceptibility to SCC increases with
increasing Zn + Mg content. It was proposed that the ternary
alloys having Zn(wt%): Mg(wt%) ratios in the range of 2.7
and 2.9 show maximum resistance to SCC [19]. Accordingly,
in medium strength, ternary Al-Zn-Mg alloys, the Zn+Mg
contents are usually kept in the range of 6-7wt%, and these
alloys have suitable Zn:Mg ratios so as to have improved
SCC resistance.
For SCC prone 7xxx series Al alloys, one of the major
microstructural requirement is that the grain structure be
unrecrystallized and the grain growth be restricted. This is
because, it is extremely difficult for the intergranular stress
corrosion cracks to propagate perpendicular to the highly
elongated, unrecrystallized grain structure. Further, the
inhibition of recrystallization reduces the total high angle
grain boundary area, where SCC occurs. Dispersoid forming
elements such as Cr, Mn and Zr are, therefore, added to
various 7xxx series Al alloys. The most efficient and
successful of these elements is Zr (typical additions being
~0.12 wt%). The resultant Al3Zr dispersoids (a = 0.406 nm)
are coherent with the Al matrix and have an L12 structure.
These dispersoids inhibit recrystallization and grain growth
during processing. The replacement of Cr by Zr in Al-Zn-Mg
system, giving rise to alloy 7017, accordingly improves the
SCC resistance. Figures 3 (a) and (b) represent optical
Fig. 3 : (a) Optical micrographs obtained from 15 mm thick
7017 plates showing (a) unrecrystallized grain structure
in the as-hot rolled and (b) partially recrystallized grain
structure developed in the T651 condition. (c) TEM BF
image showing precipitates in the matrix and
particles at the grain boundary in 7017 T651 plates.
micrographs showing grain structure obtained from 15 mm
thick 7017 plates produced at DMRL, Hyderabad. Figure 3
(a) shows unrecrystallized grain structure in the as-hot rolled
condition, and Figure 3 (b) shows partially recrystallized
grain structure in the peak aged condition. Figure 3 (c)
represents a transmission electron micrograph obtained from
the peak aged alloy showing the precipitate morphology.
The fine precipitates in the matrix are Kc while the coarse
grain boundary particles are equilibrium K phase.
Studies have shown that small addition of either Sc (0.23
wt%) or Ag (0.35 wt%) greatly improves the SCC resistance
of Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr based alloys [10]. The studies revealed
no crack growth in peak aged Ag or Sc-bearing alloys even
when loaded at KISCC = 23 MPa—m for 10,000 h. This may
be compared with K1SCC value of 12 MPa—m for the peak

Table 3 : Composition in wt% (balance Al) of Selected 7xxx Series Al Alloys

IADS Zn Mg Cu Cr Zr (Ti+Zr) Mn Ti Fe Si
Designa (Max.) (Max.)
-tions
7020 4.3-4.7 1.1-1.4 — 0.1-0.25 0.1-0.25 0.2-0.45 — 0.30 0.30
7018 4.0-5.0 1.0-1.4 — 0.1-0.25 — 0.1-0.5 0.01-0.2 0.30 0.35
7039 3.5-4.5 2.3-3.3 0.10 0.15-0.20 — 0.10-0.40 0.10 0.40 0.30
7017 4.0-5.2 2.0-3.0 0.20 0.10 0.10-0.25 0.05-0.50 0.15 0.4 0.35
7075 5.1-6.1 2.1-2.9 1.2-2.0 0.18-0.28 (0.25) 0.30 0.20 0.50 0.40
7010 5.7-6.7 2.1-2.9 1.5-2.0 0.05 0.10-0.16 0.30 — 0.15 0.10
7178 6.3-7.3 2.4-3.1 1.6-2.4 0.18-0.35 — 0.30 0.20 0.50 0.40
7050 5.7-6.7 1.9-2.6 2.0-2.6 0.04 0.08-0.15 0.10 0.06 0.15 0.12
7055 7.6-8.4 1.8-2.3 2.0-2.6 — 0.08-0.25 — — 0.15 0.10
7449 7.5-8.7 1.8-2.7 1.4-2.1 — 0.08-0.25 — — 0.15 0.12
7085 7.0-8.0 1.2-1.8 1.3-2.0 — 0.08-0.15 — — 0.08 0.06
 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009
Table 4 : Tensile Properties of T651 treated, 15 mm thick plates of 7018, 7039, 7017 alloys indigenized,
and Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr Alloys with and without 0.23 wt% Sc and 0.35 wt% Ag developed at
DMRL
Alloy (15mm Thick Plate) Temper
7018 T651
7039 T651
7017 T651
Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr-Sc T651
Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr-Ag T651
aged alloy 7017 [10]. The improved SCC resistance of Sc
bearing alloy is consistent with the inhibition of
recrystallization by the presence of a uniformly distributed
fine Al3ScxZr1-x dispersoids. On the other hand, Ag enters
into the grain boundary K phase, thus making it relatively
noble and reducing the corrosion reaction. Results revealed
that even the under aged alloy containing Ag attains high
value of KISCC = 23 MPa—m.
Table 4 presents the tensile properties of 15 mm thick
T651 treated plates of alloys 7018, 7039, 7017 and Al-Zn-Mg-
Mn-Zr alloys containing Ag and Sc. The tensile properties
of the existing 7018, 7039 and 7017 alloys are comparable to
those reported in the literature. Table 4 demonstrates that
(a) Sc addition considerably improves the peak-aged strength
properties of Cu-free Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr alloys and that (b) in
Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr-Ag alloys of suitable composition, the
0.2% PS in the peak aged conditions reaches as high as
500 MPa [20].
2.3.2 Al-Zn-Mg-Cu system
In high strength commercial alloys, the Zn + Mg contents
may range between 8-10 wt%. The lower limit of Cu is usually
not less than 1% and the upper limit may reach 2.6wt%.
Studies, using alloy 7050 equivalent Zn and Mg contents
have shown that increasing the Cu content from 1 to 2.1wt%
slows down the stress corrosion crack velocity by an order
of magnitude [21]. The presence of higher amounts of Cu
further allows these alloys to undergo specially designed
over aging heat treatments (i.e. T7X temper) to improve SCC
resistance with minimal loss in the strength properties. One
major consideration in deciding Cu and Mg contents of high
strength 7xxx series Al alloys is made with reference to the
absence of S (Al2CuMg) phase at the typical homogenizing
/ solutionizing temperature. Studies have shown that
increasing the Zn content up to 8.2wt% does not widen the
D-Al single phase field in the phase diagram, [22] and this
implies that for alloy design involving high Zn alloys such
as 7055, the aforementioned phase diagram is of prime
importance [23]. The amount of Zr in these alloys is usually
maintained at about 0.12wt%.
2.4 Thermal and mechanical processing
The as-cast material is subjected to the process of
homogenization at a suitable temperature that is well below
the initiation temperature of melting of the eutectic phase
mixture present in the alloy. For alloys 7017, 7075, 7010, the
maximum temperature of homogenization must be restricted
to 465°C. Whilst, increasing the Zn content to 12wt% has
the effect of gradually lowering the maximum temperature of
117
0.2 PS (MPa) UTS (MPa) % Elongation
(50 mm GL)
344 410 13
400 480 11
415 485 11
451 497 12
500 550 11
homogenization to 451°C [24]. Therefore, for high Zn alloys,
the use of multi-step homogenization treatments becomes
necessary. Prior to mechanical processing, the homogenized
materials are scalped in order to remove the oxides formed on
the surfaces of the cast ingots. The resultant slabs and
billets undergo bulk deformation mostly through rolling and
extrusion respectively. Various selected components are
further processed through the forging route. Extrudability of
7xxx series alloys is rated poor as compared to the 6xxx series
Al-Mg-Si alloys. Extrudability becomes poorer with
increasing concentration of the solutes present in the 7xxx
series alloys. Recent studies at DMRL on the extrusion
processing of 7055 alloys revealed that extrusion ratios
beyond 20:1 and ram speed in excess of 5 mm/s could not
be utilized for the initial billet temperature of 420°C [25].
As with all age-hardening Al alloys, the temperature for
the solution treatment is similar to that of the homogenization
treatment. The decomposition of the supersaturated solid
solution begins during or immediately following quenching
in water at ambient temperature. At room temperature, the
only aging product in these alloys is the G-P zones. Figure
4 (a) represents a transmission electron micrograph showing
the presence of a uniform and fine distribution of spherical
G-P zones in a naturally aged (six weeks) Al alloy 7010.
Figure 4 (b) represents a selected area electron diffraction
pattern corresponding to Fig. 4 (a) showing the presence of
diffuse diffraction spots (a couple marked by arrows) due to
the G-P zones. One known industrial practice associated
with the reduction in the intensity of the quenched-in
stresses is to provide cold stretching (plastic deformation)
along the longitudinal direction of the semi-products
following solution treatment and qunching. For forgings, the
application of cold-compression is known for this purpose.
The most common heat treatment to obtain the peak aged
strength is solution treatment, quenching, stretching (for
stress relief purpose) followed by artificial aging at 120°C for
24 h. Often, a two-step peak aging treatment involving 4-8h
at 100°C followed by 24h at 120°C is employed to remove the
adverse effects of time delay between quenching and aging
and to obtain reproducible and a slightly superior strength
properties with no loss in ductility, especially for thicker
components where quench sensitivity is an issue [26].
Figures 5 (a) and (b) represent transmission electron
micrographs showing peak aged (T651) microstructure
obtained from the 7010 alloy using single-step and double-
step aging respectively. The formation of finer precipitate
morphology and reduced PFZs adjacent to the grain
boundary in the case of double-step aged sample is
noticeable. These peak aged alloys are, however, highly
susceptible to SCC. A solution to this problem has been
found through the over aging T7X heat treatments (wherein,
118 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009

Fig. 4 : (a) TEM BF image showing the presence of a uniform and fine distribution of spherical G-P zones in a 7010 alloy naturally
aged for 6 weeks and (b) selected area electron diffraction pattern corresponding to (a); diffuse diffraction spots due to the G-
P zones are marked by arrows.

Fig. 5 : TEM BF images showing microstructure developed in (a) 7010 T651 (single step aging), (b) 7010 T651 (two-step aging), (c)
7010 T7451, (d) 7449 T651 and (e) 7449 T7751 alloys. Compare (a) with (b), and (d) with (e).
 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009 119

Table 5 : Mechanical properties and SCC data of 20 mm thick 7010 plates indigenized at DMRL
Temper 0.2%PS (MPa) UTS (MPa) %El K1C(MPa m 1/2) K1SCC(MPa m 1/2)
T651 520 590 12 32 18
T7451 438 500 12 31 23

Table 6 : Mechanical properties and SCC data of 5 mm thick 7449 sheets indigenized at DMRL
Temper 0.2%PS UTS %EL EC K1SCC
(MPa) (MPa) (%IACS) (MPa m 1/2 )
T651-L 601 635 12 31.0 <18
T7751-L 565 602 11 36.3 23

X implies the degree of over aging treatment). Figure 5 (c)
represents an over aged, T7451 treated microstructure
developed in the alloy 7010.
In T73-76 tempers, the SCC resistance increases at the
expense of the strength of the alloy. An alternative heat
treatment i.e. retrogression and re-aging (popularly known as
RRA [27] and commercially known as T77) involves heating
of the starting T6 microstructure for a few seconds to a few
minutes at a temperature from 200 to 260°C (i.e. the
retrogression step), then subsequently applying another T6
treatment at lower temperatures in the range of 115-125°C for
several hours (i.e. the re-aging step). Figures 5 (d) and (e)
represent transmission electron micrographs showing the
T651 (peak aged) and T7751 (RRA) microstructure developed
in the alloy 7449. The improvements in the KISCC values of
various 7xxx series Al alloys due to over aging and RRA are
depicted in Figure 6. Compared to the peak aged condition,
the reasons for the improved SCC resistance in the over aged
and RRA conditions involve a combination of factors such
as (1) 14-20 wt% increase in the Cu content of the coarse,
g.b. K particles, (2) minimal strain localization in the
microstructure, (3) reduction in the residual stresses, (4)
annihilation of parts of the dislocations introduced during
quenching and (5) decrease in the corrosion potential gradient
between the matrix and the g.b. region [10]. Tables 5-7
represent the mechanical properties and SCC data of various
high strength 7xxx series Al alloys (i.e. 7010, 7449, 7055)
processed in the form of sheets, plates and extrusions and
subsequently heat treated to peak aged, over aged and RRA
tempers at DMRL. An Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy with high
Zn:Mg ratio and an optimum Cu:Mg ratio (and / or Cu+Mg
content) has recently been developed at DMRL in the form
of extrusions having a minimum 0.2% tensile PS of 750 MPa
in the peak aged condition [28].
2.5 Influence of micro and trace alloying elements
2.5.1 Weldability
Figure 7 (a) represents Varestraint test results showing
the influence of small additions of Sc and Ag on the total
crack length (TCL) vs. augmented strain (%) profiles for the
alloy 7010 [10]. Figure 7 (a) shows that the base alloy 7010
is most susceptible to hot cracking, whilst there are
considerable reductions in the TCLs for the alloys 7010
containing either Sc or Ag. Figures 7 (b) through (d) represent
optical micrographs showing weld grain structure developed
in alloys 7010, 7010+Ag and 7010+Sc, respectively. It may be
noted that Ag and Sc additions to these alloys bring about
changes in the weld grain structure from columnar to
equiaxed and there is considerable refining of the grains in
both cases. The known grain refining action of Sc is further
evident in Figure 7 (d). The implication is that the strain
experienced by the liquid film at a grain boundary will
decrease as the number of grains increases, thus lowering
the possibility of tearing.
2.5.2 High temperature strength

Compression tests employing homogenized 7010 alloys

with and without 0.23wt% Sc have demonstrated that the
increase in compressive flow stress is nearly 3 to 6 times that
of the 7010 alloys over the temperature range of 300-350°C
and the strain rate range of 10-3 to 1 s-1 [Fig. 8(a) and (b)].
A combination of (a) refinement of alloy phases in the
constitute Al-Zn-Mg-Cu system, (b) evolution of smaller
subgrains, and (c) a uniform and fine distribution of
Al 3 Sc x Zr 1-x dispersoids increases the compressive flow
stresses in the Sc-bearing alloys [29].

Table 7 : Tensile properties of 18 mm dia 7055 extrusions

indigenized at DMRL
Temper 0.2%PS UTS %El %IACS
Fig. 6 : Influence of micro/trace alloying additions (i.e. Sc, Ag) (MPa) (MPa)
and /or over aging treatments (i.e. T7x / RRA) on the T6 725 757 13 31.0
KISCC (L-T) values of 5 mm thick 7017, 7010 and 7449
T77 (RRA) 683 697 11 36.5
sheets. The corresponding 0.2% Tensile PS (longitudinal)
values of the alloys are indicated in the figure. T77 (RRA) 673 685 12 37.0
120 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009
Fig. 7 : (a) Influence of Sc and Ag additions on the total crack length vs. augmented strain (%) profiles for 7010 alloy as determined
by Varestraint test. (b)-(d) Optical micrographs showing weld grain structure developed in alloys 7010, 7010+Ag and 7010+Sc,
respectively.
2.5.3 Stress corrosion cracking resistance
Studies, similar to those carried out on the evaluation of
SCC resistance of 7017 alloys containing 0.2wt% Sc, [10]
have shown that Sc additions bring about a remarkable
improvement in the SCC resistance of the alloy 7010 even in
the peak aged condition. Compared to the K1SCC (L-T) value
of 18 MPam1/2 for the alloy 7010 T651, the tests revealed that
the Sc-bearing alloy has an improved K1SCC (L-T) value of
23 MPam 1/2 (see Figure 6). A combination of (a)
unrecrystallized grain structure, (b) presence of a uniform
distribution of unshearable Al 3 Sc x Zr 1-x dispersoids, (c)
smaller grain size and narrow PFZs adjacent to the grain
boundary is responsible for the improved SCC resistance of
the Sc-bearing alloy.
2.5.4 Fatigue behaviour
Studies involving small additions of Ag and Sc to high
strength Al-Zn-Mg-Cu-Zr alloy 7010 were made to examine
the fatigue behaviour. It was revealed that trace addition of
Ag (0.4wt%) does not deteriorate the fatigue properties of
the alloy 7010 in any way [30]. Whilst, the Sc addition is
found to decrease the fatigue crack propagation threshold,
“kth from 5.2 MPam1/2 to 3.1 MPam1/2, and this is related to
the fine grain size of the Sc-bearing alloy [31]. The enhanced
fatigue crack propagation rate is further observed in the case
of the Sc-bearing alloy. This is caused by the additional
void formation (i.e. in addition to the voids formed by
Al 7 Cu 2 Fe and Mg 2 Si insolubles) by the coarse, primary
Al3ScxZr1-x particles (3-5 Pm in sizes) that are responsible for
the nucleation of Al grains in these alloys during
solidification.
2.5.5 Superplastic behaviour
In 7xxx series Al alloys containing Zr and/or Zr+Sc, it is
difficult to develop recrystallized grain structure (formed by
static recrystallization) using the Rockwell route prior to
superplastic deformation. However, the utilization of two
suitable strain rates (i.e. a higher strain rate of 10 -2s-1
followed by the optimum superplastic strain rate of 10-3s-1)
at a suitable temperature (425°C for alloy 7449 and 450°C for
Sc-bearing alloy 7010) during the tensile tests following
3-step thermo-mechanical processing of the materials (i.e.
solutionizing + water quenching, over aging and hot rolling)
has proven beneficial for the development of desired grain
structure for superplastic deformation. This processing route
has yielded 460% elongation in the case of alloy 7449 [32]
and the elongation is as high as 560% for the alloy 7010
containing Sc [33]. Figure 9(a) shows a photo-macrograph
of the alloy 7449 sample after attaining 460% elongation
during the tensile test. Figure 9(b) and (c) present optical
micrographs showing that recrystallization occurred in the
 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009
Fig. 8 : Flow stress of the homogenized (a) 7010 and (b)
7010+0.23 wt% Sc alloys deformed under compression
at 350oC, 1 s-1. Noticeable decrease in flow stress with
increasing strain in (b) is associated with coarsening &
dissolution of finer alloy phases in the constituent Al-
Zn-Mg-Cu system, but not recrystallization that did not
occur.
Fig. 9 : (a) Photo-macrograph of the alloy 7449 sample tensile
tested at 425°C, 10-2s-1 + 10-3s-1, giving rise to 460%
elongation. (b) & (c) Optical micrographs showing
recrystallized grains having an average size of 8 Pm in
the gauge region, and an unrecrystallized grain structure
in the grip region, respectively of the tensile tested
sample.
gauge region, whilst recrystallization did not occur in the
grip portion of the tensile tested sample.
2.6 Influence of impurity elements
2.6.1 Fracture toughness
Gains in toughness in wrought Al based alloys can be
obtained by the reduction of Fe, which is the dominant
impurity in all grades of Al. Recent studies on fracture
toughness of peak and over aged 7010 alloys have shown
that this property is mainly influenced by the initiation of
fracture by coarse Fe-bearing intermetallics such that the
mixed mode I/III loading does not reduce the fracture
121
Fig. 10 : EPMA BSE images showing (a) inhibition of anodic
oxide growth by Al12(FeMn) 3Si phase particles (one
marked by an arrow) and (b) continuous anodic oxide
coating developed in alloy 7075 containing restricted
amounts of Si, Mn and Fe impurities and no
Al12(FeMn)3Si phase.
toughness of these alloys [34]. The aerospace grade Al alloys,
consequently, contain a total Fe+Si contents of less than
0.10 wt%.
2.6.2 Hard anodizing
Si and Mn impurities, when present above certain critical
limits, stabilize the Al 12(FeMn) 3Si based phase, and it is
these particles that survive the hard anodizing treatment,
inhibit the local growth of the anodic oxide film in Al-Zn-Mg-
Cu alloys [see Figure 10(a)] [35] and causes heating
(“burning”) at the edges of the components due to a steep
rise in voltage with hard anodizing time. This interrupts the
hard anodizing process and the required coating thickness is
obtained following several steps. Studies showed that in a
7075 alloy containing 0.05wt% Si, 0.04wt%Mn, and 0.18 wt%
Fe (labeled alloy 1), the formation of the Al12(FeMn)3Si phase
is suppressed. This results in a steady rise in the bath
voltage with time and the desired continuous coating
thickness is obtained in an uninterrupted single step
[Fig. 10(b)].
3. Summary
The influence of major and minor alloying elements,
impurity elements, a variety of heat treatments and mechanical
122 Mukhopadhyay : Trans. IIM Vol. 62, Issue 2, April 2009
processing routes on the microstructure-property
relationships in Al-Zn-Mg-Zr alloys with and without Cu has
been investigated for applications in areas of aerospace and
defence. This work has enabled development of (1) Al-Zn-
Mg-Cu-Zr alloys having 0.2% tensile PS values exceeding
700 MPa, and (2) weldable Al-Zn-Mg-Mn-Zr alloys having
0.2% tensile PS value of 500 MPa, both with adequate SCC
resistance.
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to acknowledge the financial support
of Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO),
Government of India.
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