Twinning: A surface defect across which there is a mirror image miss-orientation of the lattice structure.

The boundary that separates these regions called twin soundaries. Twin boundaries can also move under applied loading thus couring permanent deformation of the material ( This is a plane Imperfection). Some Strensthering Mechanisms in Solids: Restricting or hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger. Grain Size: Fine grain solids are stronger ten coarse grain solids. This is because they have more grain boundaries that can present obstacles to dislocation motion. Solid Solution Strengthering: When impurity atoms are dissolved in the matrix, lattice distortion is produced. This creates a stress(strain) field to be set in the region of the impurity. This stress field will interact with the stress field of a moving dislocation, thus retarding dislocation motion. Work(Strain) Hardering: The phenomenom by which a ductile material becomes harder and stronger as it is plastically deformed.

Cold Working: Any mechanical operation done below the recrystallization temperature (makes a material harder and stronger). Hot Working: Any mechanical operation done above the crystallization temperature. Annealing: Process used to soften cold working materials. 1) Recovery. 2) Recrystallization. 3) Grain Growth. Recovery: A low temperature phenomenon which removes most internal stresses with little change in the mechanical properties.

 Recrystallization: A process by which distorted grain of cold worked metals are replaced by new strain free grains during hecting above a specific minimum temperature. This minimum temperature called the recrystallization temperature