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Lt Cdr Khalid
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Introduction
Strength of Material can be increased by hindering
dislocation, which is responsible for plastic deformation.
2
Introduction
Ordinarily ductility is sacrificed when an alloy is
strengthened.
3
Strengthing Methods
Different ways to hinder dislocation motion/Strengthening
mechanisms:
4
GRAIN SIZE REDUCTION
SINGLE PHASE
5
Strengthening by Grain size reduction
Grain boundaries are barriers to slip.
• Barrier "strength" increases with Increasing angle of
misorientation.
• Smaller grain size: more barriers to slip
It is based on the fact that
dislocations will experience
hindrances while trying to move
from a grain into the next because
of abrupt change in orientation of
planes.
Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e. (Fig.
Yield strength is related to grain 7.14 is from A Textbook of Materials
size (diameter, d) as Hall-Petch Technology, by Van Vlack, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
relation:
6
Strengthening by Grain size reduction
Grain Size Reduction Techniques:
• Increase Rate of solidification from the liquid phase.
• Perform Plastic deformation followed by an appropriate
heat treatment.
Notes:
• Grain size reduction also improves toughness of many
alloys.
• Small-angle grain boundaries are not effective in
interfering with the slip process because of the small
crystallographic misalignment across the boundary.
• Boundaries between two different phases are also
impediments to movements of dislocations.
7
SOLID SOLUTION STRENGTHENING
SINGLE PHASE
8
Solid Solution Strengthening
Impurity atoms distort the lattice and generate stress.
9
Solid Solution Strengthening
2 types of solid solution:
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Solid Solution Strengthening
Factors affecting the solubility of solute atoms:
1. Atomic Size Factors
2. Crystal Structure
3. Electro-negativity
4. Valences
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Solid Solution Strengthening
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Strengthening by Alloying
Small impurities tend to concentrate at dislocations on the
“Compressive stress side”
Reduce mobility of dislocation increase strength
14
Strengthening by Alloying
Large impurities concentrate at dislocations on “Tensile
Stress” side – pinning dislocation
15
Strengthening by Alloying
e.g: Solid Solution Strengthening in Copper
Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni
Empirical relation:
17
Strain Hardening
Phenomenon where ductile metals become stronger and
harder when they are deformed plastically is called strain
hardening or work hardening.
18
Strain Hardening
Plastic deformation of ductile materials increase the
strength of the material at very low temperature than its'
melting point.
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Strain Hardening
• The average distance between dislocations decreases and
dislocations start blocking the motion of each other.
€e -recoverable elastic strain
€p -inelastic strain
Σ0 -stress at initial yield
Σy -stress at new yield
Σ0 < Σy
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Strain Hardening: Annealing of Deformed Metals
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Strain Hardening
During strain hardening, in addition to mechanical properties,
physical properties also changes:
• A small decrease in density
• An appreciable decrease in electrical
conductivity
• Small increase in thermal coefficient of
expansion
• Increased chemical reactivity
(decrease in corrosion resistance).
23
Strain Hardening
Effects of cold work can be removed by heating the material
to suitable temperatures – Annealing.
24
Strain Hardening: Result of Cold Work
As cold work is increased:
• Dislocation density
increases
•Yield strength (YS)
increases.
• Tensile strength (TS)
increases.
• Ductility decreases.
25
Cold Work Analysis
Degree of plastic deformation is defined as cold work
(%CW) rather than strain
What is the tensile strength and ductility after cold working?
Copper
Cold
Work
D o =15.2mm D d =12.2mm
2
r r
%CW 2
o
2
d x 100 35.6%
ro
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Cold Work Analysis
What is the tensile strength and ductility after cold working?
40
500 600
Cu
300 Cu 400 340MPa 20
Cu 7%
100
0 20 40 60 200 0
0 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work
0 %20
Cold40
Work60
YS = 300 MPa %EL = 7%
TS = 340MPa
Adapted from Fig. 7.19, Callister 7e. (Fig. 7.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Iron and Steels,
Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226; and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection:
Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and
327.)
27
1. Recovery
Annihilation reduces dislocation density.
•During recovery, some extra half-plane
of the stored internal of atoms Dislocations
atoms annihilate
strain energy is relieved diffuse and form
through dislocation to regions a perfect
motion due to enhanced of tension atomic
plane
atomic diffusion at the extra half-plane
of atoms
elevated temperatures.
28
2. Recrystallization
• New set of strain-free and uniaxial grains that have low
dislocation densities.
• The new grains form as very small nuclei and grow until
they consume the parent material.
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2. Recrystallization
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (a),(b),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (a),(b)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
30
Further Recrystallization
• All cold-worked grains are consumed.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (c),(d),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from
Fig. 7.21 (d),(e),
Callister 7e.
(Fig. 7.21 (d),(e)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)
After 8 s, After 15 min,
580ºC 580ºC
32
AGE HARDENING
MULTI PHASE
33
AGE HARDENING
Requisite for age hardening is that second phase must
be soluble at an elevated temperature but precipitates upon
quenching and aging at a lower temperature.
e.g: Al-alloys, Cu-Be alloys, Mg-Al alloys, Cu-Sn alloys
Few advantages:
Done in 3 steps
34
AGE HARDENING
Step-1 :
35
AGE HARDENING
Step-2 :
• Finally, the
supersaturated solution is
heated to an intermediate
temperature in order to
induce precipitation. Figure: Effect of Time of Cooling on
Hardness
• The metal is maintained
in this state for some time
36
Adapted from Fig. 11.22, Callister . Schematic
temperature-versus-time plot
showing both solution and precipitation heat
treatments for precipitation hardening.
39
OPEN FORUM
40