Cold Working

OBJECTIVES
1. To obtain an understanding of the effects of mechanical
(cold) working on the tensile strength, hardness and the
ductility properties of engineering metals and alloys.
2. To obtain an understanding of the effects that post-
heating treatments will have some mechanical
properties of engineering metals and alloys which have
been previously work-hardened.
3. To gain experience in operating a rolling mill.
4. To understand the principles of recovery,
recrystallization and grain growth.

INTRODUCTION
The two main reasons why metals and alloys are made
plastically deform is to change their shape and change their
properties. The temperature at which deformation takes
place will be an important determinant of the final
properties.
If the temperature is relatively low compared to the melting
point of the material (i.e. the deformation is lower than the
recrystallization temperature), the deformation process is
called “cold working”. The upper temperature limit of cold
working is about half the melting point on the absolute
temperature scale, but varies with factors such as rate and
amount of strain, and material composition. A material that
plastically deforms above this temperature is said to have
hardened. There is considerable variation between the
effects of cold and hot working on the properties and
structure of materials. While cold working a metal will tend
to increase its strength, other properties such as ductility or
resistance to corrosion can be negatively affected. Therefore,
to eliminate the internal stresses of cold working, it is
sometimes considered desirable after heat treatment of the
metal. If subsequent heating or annealing is carried out at a
sufficiently high temperature, the stress reduction required
to further deform the material can be achieved when
recrystallization occurs.
THEORY
Cold working is the process of strengthening metals through
plastic deformation. This is made possible through the
dislocation movements that are produced within a material’s
crystal structure. In other words, Cold forming or cold
working is any metalworking process in which metal is
shaped below its recrystallization temperature, usually at the
ambient temperature. Such processes are contrasted with
hot working techniques like hot rolling, forging, welding,
This is a technique commonly used in non-brittle metals that
have remarkably elevated melting points. A number of
polymers can also be strengthened using this method.
However, cold-worked areas in metal are more prone to
corrosion due to heightened dislocation concentration.
Cold working is also known as work hardening.
Cold working involves the alteration of the size and shape of
metals by means of plastic deformation. This process
includes: Rolling, Pressing, Drawing, Spinning, Heading,
Extruding,
It is performed under the point of re-crystallization, typically
at room temperature. The tensile strength and hardness are
enhanced depending on the extent of cold working. As the
strength increases, the values of impact and ductility weaken.
Although work hardening may be beneficial as it improves
the surface finish, strength properties, dimension control and
reduced directional properties, it must be noted that it also
has various disadvantages. Hence, industries, such as those
that utilize metal parts such as boilers should be aware that
the process of cold working may result in: Reduced ductility,
A higher force needed for deformation, Strain hardening,
Unwanted residual stress.

STRAIN HARDENING
Strain hardening, is the strengthening of a metal or polymer
by plastic deformation. Work hardening may be desirable,
undesirable, or inconsequential, depending on the context.
 This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements
and dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the
material. Many non-brittle metals with a reasonably high

melting point as well as several polymers can be

strengthened in this fashion. Alloys not amenable to heat
treatment, including low-carbon steel, are often work-
hardened. Some materials cannot be work-hardened at low
temperatures, such as indium, however others can be
strengthened only via work hardening, such as

A phenomenological uniaxial stress–strain curve showing

typical work hardening plastic behavior of materials in
uniaxial compression. For work hardening materials the yield
stress increases with increasing plastic deformation. The
strain can be decomposed into a recoverable elastic strain ({\
displaystyle \varepsilon _{e}}\varepsilon _{e}) and an inelastic
strain ({\displaystyle \varepsilon _{p}}\varepsilon _{p}). The
stress at initial yield is {\displaystyle \sigma _{0}}\sigma _{0}.

pure copper and aluminum.

Before work hardening, the lattice of the material exhibits a
regular, nearly defect-free pattern (almost no dislocations).
The defect-free lattice can be created or restored at any time
by annealing. As the material is work hardened it becomes
increasingly saturated with new dislocations, and more
dislocations are prevented from nucleating (a resistance to
dislocation-formation develops). This resistance to
dislocation-formation manifests itself as a resistance to
plastic deformation; hence, the observed strengthening.
In metallic crystals, this is a reversible process and is usually
carried out on a microscopic scale by defects called
dislocations, which are created by fluctuations in local stress
fields within the material culminating in a lattice
rearrangement as the dislocations propagate through the
lattice. At normal temperatures the dislocations are not
annihilated by annealing. Instead, the dislocations
accumulate, interact with one another, and serve as pinning
points or obstacles that significantly impede their motion.
This leads to an increase in the yield strength of the material
and a subsequent decrease in ductility.
Such deformation increases the concentration of dislocations
which may subsequently form low-angle grain boundaries
surrounding sub-grains. Cold working generally results in a
higher yield strength as a result of the increased number of
dislocations and the Hall–Petch effect of the sub-grains, and a
decrease in ductility. The effects of cold working may be
reversed by annealing the material at high temperatures
where recovery and recrystallization reduce the dislocation
density.
A material’s work hardenability can be predicted by analyzing
a stress–strain curve, or studied in context by performing
hardness tests before and after a process.

RECOVERY

Recovery is a process by which deformed grains can reduce

their stored energy by the removal or rearrangement of
defects in their crystal structure. These defects, primarily
dislocations, are introduced by plastic deformation of the
material and act to increase the yield strength of a material.
Since recovery reduces the dislocation density the process is
normally accompanied by a reduction in a material’s strength
and a simultaneous increase in the ductility. As a result,
recovery may be considered beneficial or detrimental
depending on the circumstances. Recovery is related to the
similar process of recrystallization and grain growth, each of
them being stages of annealing. Recovery competes with
recrystallization, as both are driven by the stored energy, but
is also thought to be a necessary prerequisite for the
nucleation of recrystallized grains. It is so called because
there is a recovery of the electrical conductivity due to a
reduction in dislocations. This creates defect-free channels,
giving electrons an increased mean-free path.
RECRYSTALLIZATION

Recrystallization is a process by which deformed grains are

replaced by a new set of defect-free grains that nucleate and
grow until the original grains have been entirely consumed.
Recrystallization is usually accompanied by a reduction in the
strength and hardness of a material and a simultaneous
increase in the ductility. Thus, the process may be introduced
as a deliberate step in metals processing or may be an
undesirable byproduct of another processing step. The most
important industrial uses are softening of metals previously
hardened or rendered brittle by cold work, and control of the
grain structure in the final product.
Recrystallization is defined as the process in which grains of a
crystal structure come in a new structure or new crystal
shape.
A precise definition of recrystallization is difficult to state as
the process is strongly related to several other processes,
most notably recovery and grain growth. In some cases it is
difficult to precisely define the point at which one process
begins and another ends. Doherty et al. (1997) defined
recrystallization as:
“… the formation of a new grain structure in a deformed
material by the formation and migration of high angle grain
boundaries driven by the stored energy of deformation. High
angle boundaries are those with greater than a 10-15°
misorientation”
Thus the process can be differentiated from recovery (where
high angle grain boundaries do not migrate) and grain growth
(where the driving force is only due to the reduction in
boundary area). Recrystallization may occur during or after
deformation (during cooling or subsequent heat treatment,
for example). The former is termed dynamic while the latter
is termed static. In addition, recrystallization may occur in a
discontinuous manner, where distinct new grains form and
grow, or a continuous manner, where the microstructure
gradually evolves into a recrystallized microstructure. The
different mechanisms by which recrystallization and recovery
occur are complex and in many cases remain controversial.
The following description is primarily applicable to static
discontinuous recrystallization, which is the most classical
variety and probably the most understood. Additional
mechanisms include (geometric) dynamic recrystallization
and strain induced boundary migration.
GRAIN GROWTH
In materials science, grain growth is the increase in size of
grains (crystallites) in a material at high temperature. This
occurs when recovery and recrystallisation are complete and
further reduction in the internal energy can only be achieved
by reducing the total area of grain boundary. The term is
commonly used in metallurgy but is also used in reference to
ceramics and minerals. The behaviors of grain growth is
analogous to the coarsening behaviors of grains, which
implied that both of grain growth and coarsening may be
dominated by the same physical mechanism.
The practical performances of polycrystalline materials are
strongly affected by the formed microstructure inside, which
is mostly dominated by grain growth behaviors. For example,
most materials exhibit the Hall–Petch effect at room-
temperature and so display a higher yield stress when the
grain size is reduced (assuming abnormal grain growth has
not taken place). At high temperatures the opposite is true
since the open, disordered nature of grain boundaries means
that vacancies can diffuse more rapidly down boundaries
leading to more rapid Coble creep. Since boundaries are
regions of high energy they make excellent sites for the
nucleation of precipitates and other second-phases e.g. Mg–
Si–Cu phases in some aluminium alloys or martensite platlets
in steel. Depending on the second phase in question this may
have positive or negative effects.

ADVANTAGES OF COLD-WORKING
Advantages of cold working over hot working include:
1. No heating required
2. Better surface finish
3. Superior dimensional control
4. Better reproducibility and interchangeability
 5. Directional properties can be imparted into the metal
6. Contamination problems are minimized.
DISADVANTAGES OF COLD-WORKING
Some disadvantages and problems of cold working are:
1. The metal is harder, calling for greater forces, harder
tools and dies, and heavier equipment
2. The metal is less ductile and malleable, limiting the
amount of deformation that can be obtained
3. Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free
4. It may leave undesirable anisotropy in the final piece
5. It may leave undesirable residual stress in the final piece

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT USED

Materials and Equipment

Rolling mill, Rockwell hardness tester, electrical resistance

furnaces, micrometer caliper, hacksaw, 12mm thick low
carbon steel rod or 200x20x5mm steel flat .
PROCEDURE
For each of the three bars, perform the procedure given
below and summarize the results in a table.
1. Cut out seven (7) samples of the 12mm (2 inch) low
carbon steel rod.
 2. Measure the initial thickness of the samples with a
caliper and record the values in the appropriate column
of the table.
3. Label the samples 0-6.
4. Take the hardness value of sample labeled zero (0) and
record it sample as control sample.
5. Deform samples 1-6 by 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and 60 percent
respectively.
6. Measure the final thickness of the samples after the
deformation (rolling).
7. Take the hardness readings of the deformed samples
and record the values in the appropriate column of the
table.
8. In the appropriate column of the table. Prepare the
controlled sample as well as the deformed samples for
microscopic examinations.
RESULTS
Percentage Initial Diameter Final diameter
Reduction (mm) (mm)
0 0 0
10 12 10.8
20 12 9.6
30 12 8.4
40 12 7.2
50 12 6
60 12 4.8

HARDNESS TESTING
OBJECTIVES
1. To understand what hardness is, and how it can be used to
indicate some properties of materials.
2. To conduct typical engineering hardness tests and be able
to recognise commonly used hardness scales and
numbers.
3. To be able to understand the correlation between
hardness numbers and the properties of materials.
4. To learn the advantages and limitations of the common
hardness test methods.
INTRODUCTION
Many materials are exposed to forces and stresses during
operation. Examples include the aluminum alloys that make
up the wings of an airplane and the steel of the axles. In
these situations, it is necessary to characterize the material
and design the components that make up the material so
that it does not undergo excessive deformation or breakage.
The mechanical behavior of a material reflects the
relationship between its response or deformation to the
applied load or force. Important mechanical properties are
strength, hardness, ductility and rigidity. It is common to
test most materials before they are accepted and used to
determine if they meet the required specifications. One of
these tests concerns hardness. Rockwell machines are often
used for this purpose.
THEORY
Hardness is a measure of resistance to local plastic
deformation caused by either mechanical indentation or
wear. In general, different materials have different hardness.
For example, hard metals such as titanium and beryllium are
harder than soft metals such as sodium and tin, wood and
traditional plastics. Macroscopic hardness is generally
characterized by strong intermolecular bonds, but the
behavior of forced solid materials is complex. Therefore,
there are various hardness measurements such as scratch
hardness, indentation hardness, and rebound hardness.
Hardness is related to ductility, elastic stiffness, plasticity,
elongation, strength, toughness, viscoelasticity, and viscosity.
Common examples of hard materials include ceramics,
concrete, certain metals, and carbide materials that can be
contrasted with soft materials.
MEASURING HARDNESS
There are three main types of hardness measurements:
scratch, indentation, and rebound. Within each of these
classes of measurement there are individual measurement
scales. For practical reasons conversion tables are used to
convert between one scale and another.
Scratch hardness
Scratch hardness is the measure of how resistant a sample is
to fracture or permanent plastic deformation due to friction
from a sharp object. The principle is that an object made of a
harder material will scratch an object made of a softer
material. When testing coatings, scratch hardness refers to
the force necessary to cut through the film to the substrate.
The most common test is Mohs scale, which is used in
mineralogy. One tool to make this measurement is the
sclerometer.
Another tool used to make these tests is the pocket hardness
tester. This tool consists of a scale arm with graduated
markings attached to a four-wheeled carriage. A scratch tool
with a sharp rim is mounted at a predetermined angle to the
testing surface. In order to use it a weight of known mass is
added to the scale arm at one of the graduated markings, the
tool is then drawn across the test surface. The use of the
weight and markings allows a known pressure to be applied
without the need for complicated machinery.
Indentation hardness
Indentation hardness measures the resistance of a sample to
material deformation due to a constant compression load
from a sharp object. Tests for indentation hardness are
primarily used in engineering and metallurgy. The tests work
on the basic premise of measuring the critical dimensions of
an indentation left by a specifically dimensioned and loaded
indenter.
Common indentation hardness scales are Rockwell, Vickers,
Shore, and Brinell, amongst others.
Rebound hardness
Rebound hardness, also known as dynamic hardness,
measures the height of the “bounce” of a diamond-tipped
hammer dropped from a fixed height onto a material. This
type of hardness is related to elasticity. The device used to
take this measurement is known as a scleroscope.
Two scales that measures rebound hardness are the Leeb
rebound hardness test and Bennett hardness scale.
Ultrasonic Contact Impedance (UCI) method determines
hardness by measuring the frequency of an oscillating rod.
The rod consists of a metal shaft with vibrating element and a
pyramid-shaped diamond mounted on one end.
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
The Rockwell scale is a hardness scale based on indentation
hardness of a material. The Rockwell test measures the depth
of penetration of an indenter under a large load (major load)
compared to the penetration made by a preload (minor
load).There are different scales, denoted by a single letter,
that use different loads or indenters. The result is a
dimensionless number noted as HRA, HRB, HRC, etc., where
the last letter is the respective Rockwell scale. When testing
metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile
strength.
The Rockwell hardness test can be conducted on several
various hardness testers. All testers, however, fall under one
of three categories. Bench model hardness testers can be
found either in a digital or analog model. Digital bench
models utilize a digital display and typically take more
technical training to be able to operate, whereas the analog
models are simpler to operate as well as very accurate and
display results on a dial on the front of the machine. All
bench model testers are usually found within a workshop or
laboratory setting. Other testers are portable, and all
portable testers will come in a digital model including a
digital results screen similar to that of the bench digital
model. Nowadays, companies prefer employees to use these
portable testers as they are the easiest and most practical to
use.
The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material
involves the application of a minor load followed by a major
load. The minor load establishes the zero position. The major
load is applied, then removed while still maintaining the
minor load. The depth of penetration from the zero datum is
measured from a dial, on which a harder material gives a
lower measure. That is, the penetration depth and hardness
are inversely proportional. The chief advantage of Rockwell
hardness is its ability to display hardness values directly, thus
obviating tedious calculations involved in other hardness
measurement techniques.
The Rockwell test is very cost-effective as it does not use any
optical equipment to measure the hardness based on the
small indention made, rather all calculations are done within
the machine to measure the indention in the specimen,
providing a clear result in a manner in which is easy to read
and understand once given. This also prevents any reworking
or finishing needing to be done to the specimen both before
and after testing. However, it is critical to double check
specimens as the smallest indentions made from testing
could potentially result in incorrect measurements in
hardness, leading to catastrophe. After time, the indenter on
a Rockwell scale can become inaccurate as well and need
replacing to ensure accurate and precise hardness
measurements
The equation for Rockwell Hardness is {\displaystyle HR=N-
hd}{\displaystyle HR=N-hd}, where d is the depth in mm
(from the zero load point), and N and h are scale factors that
depend on the scale of the test being used (see following
section).

It is typically used in engineering and metallurgy. Its

commercial popularity arises from its speed, reliability,
robustness, resolution and small area of indentation.
PROCEDURE
1. Select the correct combination of weights (at the rear of
the machine) and penetrators (diamond brale,
1.5875mm (1/16 inch) ball, etc.) for the hardness scale
you wish to use. The numbers given in black represent
the scales that use brale and the numbers given in red
represent the scales that use ball penetrators.
2. Make certain that the crank (4) is in forward position
(nearest to you).
3. Place sample on the anvil.
4. Slowly turn the wheel spokes (1) clockwise. This raises
the anvil and sample toward the penetrator tip. After
contact is gently made, continue raising sample until
small pointer (5) is about in line with small black dot and
large pointer (6) is within coloured sector (7). The minor
load has now been applied to the sample.
5. After step 4, large pointer (6) on the dial is nearly
vertical. Now, turn the knurled collar (2) until “SET” line
on the dial scale is in line with large pointer (6).
6. Depress trip lever (3). This triggers the mechanism that
applies the major load, Crank (4) will automatically
move away from you.
7. After the crank (4) has come to rest (against a “stop”
and away from you), gently pull the crank toward you as
far as it will go. If this is done abruptly, a false reading
will be obtained because of jarring.
8. Now record the scale reading of large pointer (6). The
black scale is read for the diamond penetrator (Example:
 Rockwell C), and the red scale is for ball penetrators
(Example: Rockwell B).
9. Remove the minor load, which remains on the
specimen, by lowering the anvil (Turn the wheel (1)
counterclockwise). Move the sample to position for next
test and repeat the steps above.

RESULTS
For Calibrated sample;
Calibration error: 4.45HRC which is usually added in tests.
TESTING NUMBER HARDNESS VALUE (HRC)
1 31
2
38
3 31
4 31
5 31
31+38+ 31+ 31+ 31 162
Average Value ¿
5
=
5
=32.4 HRC

Real Value = 32.4+4.45 = 36.85 HRC

For the Actual Test;
TESTING NUMBER HARDNESS VALUE (HRC)
1 31
2 49
3 26
4 37
Using consistent values of 26, 31 and 37 HRC:
31+ 49+26 94
Average value ¿ 3
= =31.33HRC
4
Real Value = 31.33+4.45 = 35.78 HRC

TENSILE TEST
OBJECTIVES
To understand the stress-strain curves of materials, learn
how to use them to determine various mechanical properties
of ductile and brittle materials.
INTRODUCTION
For safe design of structural components in bridges, railway
lines, marines ships, aircrafts, pressure vessels etc, the tensile
properties of materials used should be analyzed. Hence the
tensile strength of the materials should meet the strength
requirements of the structural applications. The mechanical
properties of the metals determine the kind of engineering
application to be used for. Experiments on tensile tests can
be used to predict the tensile properties and they are
conducted by application of axial or longitudinal forces to a
specimen with known dimensions. These forces are applied
on the specimen until deformation causes failure. The tensile
load and corresponding extensions are then recorded for
calculations and determination of stress-strain relationship of
the material specimen. The tensile test experiment can be
used to determine other mechanical characteristics of the
specimen like yield strength, percentage elongation, and
ultimate strength among others. The original gauge Length,
diameter Do or cross sectional area also used in calculations
hence should be recorded.
The basic idea of a tensile test is to place a sample of a
material between two fixtures called “grips” which clamp the
material. The material has known dimensions, like length and
cross-sectional area. We then begin to apply weight to the
material gripped at one end while the other end is fixed. We
keep increasing the weight (often called the load or force)
while at the same time measuring the change in length of the
sample.
THEORY
Tensile testing, also known as tension testing, is a
fundamental materials science and engineering test in which
a sample is subjected to a controlled tension until failure.
Properties that are directly measured via a tensile test are
ultimate tensile strength, breaking strength, maximum
elongation and reduction in area. From these measurements
the following properties can also be determined: Young’s
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield strength, and strain-hardening
characteristics. Uniaxial tensile testing is the most commonly
used for obtaining the mechanical characteristics of isotropic
materials. Some materials use biaxial tensile testing. The
main difference between these testing machines being how
load is applied on the materials.
PURPOSES OF TENSILE TESTING
Tensile testing might have a variety of purposes, such as:
1. Select a material or item for an application
2. Predict how a material will perform in use: normal and
extreme forces.
3. Determine if, or verify that, the requirements of a
specification, regulation, or contract are met
4. Decide if a new product development program is on
track
5. Demonstrate proof of concept
6. Demonstrate the utility of a proposed patent
7. Provide standard data for other scientific, engineering,
and quality assurance functions
8. Provide a basis for Technical communication
9. Provide a technical means of comparison of several
options
10. Provide evidence in legal proceedings.
TESTING SPECIMEN/TEST PIECE
The preparation of test specimens depends on the
purposes of testing and on the governing test method or
specification. A tensile specimen usually has a
standardized sample cross-section. It has two shoulders
and a gauge (section) in between. The shoulders and grip
section are generally larger than the gauge section by 33%
[4] so they can be easily gripped. The gauge section’s
smaller diameter also allows the deformation and failure
to occur in this area.[2][5]
The shoulders of the test specimen can be manufactured
in various ways to mate to various grips in the testing
machine (see the image below). Each system has
advantages and disadvantages; for example, shoulders
designed for serrated grips are easy and cheap to
manufacture, but the alignment of the specimen is
dependent on the skill of the technician. On the other
hand, a pinned grip assures good alignment. Threaded
shoulders and grips also assure good alignment, but the
technician must know to thread each shoulder into the
grip at least one diameter’s length, otherwise the threads
can strip before the specimen fractures.[6]
In large castings and forgings it is common to add extra
material, which is designed to be removed from the
casting so that test specimens can be made from it. These
specimens may not be exact representation of the whole
workpiece because the grain structure may be different
throughout. In smaller workpieces or when critical parts of
the casting must be tested, a workpiece may be sacrificed
to make the test specimens.[7] For workpieces that are
machined from bar stock, the test specimen can be made
from the same piece as the bar stock.
For soft and porous materials, like electrospun nonwovens
made of nanofibers, the specimen is usually a sample strip
supported by a paper frame to favour its mounting on the
machine and to avoid membrane damaging.[8][9]
TESTING PROCESS

The test process involves placing the test specimen in the

testing machine and slowly extending it until it fractures.
During this process, the elongation of the gauge section is
recorded against the applied force. The data is manipulated
so that it is not specific to the geometry of the test sample.
The elongation measurement is used to calculate the
engineering strain, ε, using the following equation:[5]
where ΔL is the change in gauge length, L0 is the initial gauge
length, and L is the final length. The force measurement is
used to calculate the engineering stress, σ, using the
following equation

where F is the tensile force and A is the nominal cross-section

of the specimen. The machine does these calculations as the
force increases, so that the data points can be graphed into a
stress–strain curve.[5]
When dealing with porous and soft materials, as electrospun
nanofibrous membranes, the application of the above stress
formula is problematic. The membrane thickness, indeed, is
dependent on the pressure applied during its measurement,
leading to variable thicknesses value. As a consequence, the
obtained stress-strain curves show high variability. In this
case, the normalization of load with respect to the specimen
mass instead of the cross-section area (A) is recommended to
obtain reliable tensile results.

EQUIPMENT USED
Tensile testing is most often carried out at a material testing
laboratory. The ASTM D638 is among the most common
tensile testing protocols. The ASTM D638 measures plastics
tensile properties including ultimate tensile strength, yield
strength, elongation and Poisson’s ratio.
The most common testing machine used in tensile testing is
the universal testing machine. This type of machine has two
crossheads; one is adjusted for the length of the specimen
and the other is driven to apply tension to the test specimen.
There are two types: hydraulic powered and
electromagnetically powered machines.[5]
The electromechanical machine uses an electric motor, gear
reduction system and one, two or four screws to move the
crosshead up or down. A range of crosshead speeds can be
achieved by changing the speed of the motor. The speed of
the crosshead, and consequently the load rate, can be
controlled by a microprocessor in the closed-loop servo
controller. A hydraulic testing machine uses either a single-
or dual-acting piston to move the crosshead up or down.
Manually operated testing systems are also available. Manual
configurations require the operator to adjust a needle valve
in order to control the load rate. A general comparison shows
that the electromechanical machine is capable of a wide
range of test speeds and long crosshead displacements,
whereas the hydraulic machine is a cost-effective solution for
generating high forces.[11]
The machine must have the proper capabilities for the test
specimen being tested. There are four main parameters:
force capacity, speed, precision and accuracy. Force capacity
refers to the fact that the machine must be able to generate
enough force to fracture the specimen. The machine must be
able to apply the force quickly or slowly enough to properly
mimic the actual application. Finally, the machine must be
able to accurately and precisely measure the gauge length
and forces applied; for instance, a large machine that is
designed to measure long elongations may not work with a
brittle material that experiences short elongations prior to
fracturing.[6]
Alignment of the test specimen in the testing machine is
critical, because if the specimen is misaligned, either at an
angle or offset to one side, the machine will exert a bending
force on the specimen. This is especially bad for brittle
materials, because it will dramatically skew the results. This
situation can be minimized by using spherical seats or U-
joints between the grips and the test machine.[6] If the initial
portion of the stress–strain curve is curved and not linear, it
indicates the specimen is misaligned in the testing machine.
[12]
The strain measurements are most commonly measured with
an extensometer, but strain gauges are also frequently used
on small test specimen or when Poisson’s ratio is being
measured.[6] Newer test machines have digital time, force,
and elongation measurement systems consisting of
electronic sensors connected to a data collection device
(often a computer) and software to manipulate and output
the data. However, analog machines continue to meet and
exceed ASTM, NIST, and ASM metal tensile testing accuracy
requirements, continuing to be used today.
PROCEDURE
1. I measured and recorded the diameter of the reduced
section of the steel tensile specimen.
2.     I placed two marks approximately 100cm apart,
centered on the reduced portion of the specimen and
recorded the dimension as the gauge length.
3.     I noted when the extensometer was attached it might
leave dimples in the steel.
4.     I mounted the tensile specimen within the testing
machine and I affixed the tensile testing machine within the
reduced portion of the tensile specimen
5.     I zeroed all readings and I turned the dials.
6.     I applied the tensile load at a strain rate between 0.05
and 0.50 mm/s
7.     As the tensile loading was applied to the specimen , I
recorded down readings for loads at different elongations at
intervals of 0.1mm
8.     After specimen failure, I fit the fractured ends together
carefully and measured both the distance between the gauge
marks and the reduced diameter of the specimen.
RESULTS
For the first sample (10%);
Time taken for deformation: 6 minutes, 45 seconds.
Necked diameter = 2.52mm.
Gauge diameter = 4.47mm. ([4.22+4.44+4.76]/3).
Initial length = 55.25mm.
Initial Gauge length =5 x gauge diameter = 5 x 4.47 =
22.35mm
Final length = 58.58mm.
Change in Length = 3.33mm

For the second sample (20%);

Time taken for deformation: 4 minutes, 23 seconds.
Necked diameter = 3.08mm.
Gauge diameter = 4.54mm.
Initial length = 55.61mm.
Initial Gauge Length =5 x gauge diameter = 5 x 4.54 = 22.7mm
Final length = 57.92mm.
Change in length = 2.31mm

CALCULATIONS AND GRAPHS:

Sample 1(10%):
% Elongation:
(Change in Length) x 100
Initial Gauge Length
Initial Gauge Length = 22.35mm
Change in length = 3.33mm
= 3.33 x 100
22.35
=14.9%
% Reduction in Area:
(Initial Area – Final Area) x 100
Initial Area
EXPERIMENT 5
METALLOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION:
OBJECTIVES:
To demonstrate a standard procedure for the preparation
and subsequent optical examination of metallographic
specimens.
THEORY
Metallography is the study of the physical structure and
composition of metals, using a microscope. Ceramic and
polymeric materials can also be prepared using
metallographic techniques, hence the terms ceramography,
plastography and, collectively, materialography. The surface
of the metal specimen is prepared by a variety of grinding,
polishing and etching methods. Once prepared, it is usually
analyzed using an optical or electron microscope. Using only
metallographic techniques, a skilled technician can identify
alloys and predict material properties. Mechanical
preparation is the most common preparation method.
Consecutive
Finer abrasive particles are used to remove material from
the specimen surface until the desired surface quality is
achieved. Various machines are available to perform this
grinding and polishing, capable of meeting different quality,
capacity and reproducibility requirements. A systematic
method of preparation is the easiest way to get the real
structure. Therefore, sample preparation must follow the
rules applicable to most materials. Different materials with
similar properties (hardness and ductility) will respond
equally and therefore require the same consumables in
preparation. Metallic specimens are usually “mounted” using
a thermoset resin that has been heat-pressed. In the past,
thermosetting phenolic resins were used, but modern epoxy
is becoming increasingly popular as the reduced shrinkage
during curing results in a better material with better edge
retention. A typical mounting cycle will compress the
specimen and mounting media to 4000 psi (28 MPa) and heat
to 350°F (177°C). When specimens are very temperature
sensitive, “cold stands” can be constructed of two-part epoxy
resin. Sample holders provide a safe, standardized and
convenient way to hold samples during grinding and
polishing. After mounting, the specimen is wet-ground to
reveal the metal surface. The sample is continuously ground
with progressively finer abrasive particles. Silicon carbide
sandpaper was the first grinding method and is still used
today. However, many metallographers prefer to use a
suspension of diamond particles quantified on a cloth that
can be reused during the polishing process. Suspended
diamond particles can start at 9 micrometers and end at one
micrometer. In general, polishing with diamond mud gives
better results than using silicon carbide paper (SiC paper),
especially with its pronounced porosity, to which silicon
carbide paper sometimes “stains”. After grinding the sample,
polishing is performed. Typically, a specimen is polished with
a slurry of alumin, silica, or diamond on a hairless cloth to
produce a mirror finish that is free from scratches, burrs,
streaks or tears and with no distortion minimum remaining
after the preparation process. After polishing, some
microstructural components can be seen under the
microscope, for example impurities and nitrides. If the crystal
structure is not cubic (for example, a metal with a hexagonal
closed crystal structure, such as Ti or Zr), the microstructure
can berevealed without etching in cross-polarized light
(optical microscopy). Otherwise, the microstructural
components of the sample are revealed using an appropriate
electrochemical or chemical etching method. Non-
destructive surface analysis techniques may involve the
application of a thin film or varnish that can be peeled off
after drying and microscopic examination. This technique was
developed by Pierre Armand Jacquet and others in 1957.
Many different microscopy techniques are used in
metallographic analysis. Prepared samples should be visually
inspected after etching for any visible areas that respond to
etching differently than standard to determine where
microscopic examination should be used. Light-optical
microscopy (LOM) examination should always be performed
before any electron-metal (EM) imaging techniques, as these
techniques take longer to perform and the equipment is
more expensive. much more. Also, some features can be
seen better with LOM, for example natural color of
component can be seen with LOM but not with EM system.
Furthermore, the image contrast of the microstructures at
relatively low magnification, eg: < 500X, with a much better
LOM than a scanning electron microscope (SEM), while
transmission electron microscopy (TEM) generally cannot be
used at lower magnifications around 2000 to 3000X. The
LOM exam is quick and can cover a large area. Therefore,
analysis can determine whether more expensive and time-
consuming inspection techniques using SEM or TEM are
needed and where work should be focused on the specimen.
Visual design, resolution and contrast.