Unit iv

Pilling bedworth ratio

Definition

The P-B ratio is defined as:

Where:

 RPB is the Pilling-Bed worth ratio,

 M - the atomic or molecular mass,
 n - number of atoms of metal per one molecule of the oxide
 ρ - density, and
 V - The molar volume.

On the basis of measurements, the following connection can be shown:

 RPB < 1: the oxide coating layer is too thin, likely broken and provides no
protective effect (for example magnesium)
 RPB > 2: the oxide coating chips off and provides no protective effect
(example iron)
 1 < RPB < 2: the oxide coating is passivating and provides a protecting effect
against further surface oxidation (examples aluminium, titanium, chromium-
containing steels).

However, the exceptions to the above P-B ratio rules are numerous. Many of the
exceptions can be attributed to the mechanism of the oxide growth: the underlying
assumption in the P-B ratio is that oxygen needs to diffuse through the oxide layer
to the metal surface; in reality, it is often the metal ion that diffuses to the air-oxide
interface.

Unit v

Embrittlement

Embrittlement is a loss of ductility of a material, making it brittle. Various

materials have different mechanisms of embrittlement
  Hydrogen embrittlement is the effect of hydrogen absorption on some metals
and alloys.

 Sulfide stress cracking is the embrittlement caused by absorption of

hydrogen sulfide.

 Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) is the embrittlement caused by liquid

metals.

 Metal-induced embrittlement (MIE) is the embrittlement caused by diffusion

of atoms of metal, either solid or liquid, into the material.

 Neutron radiation causes embrittlement of some materials, neutron-induced

swelling, and buildup of Wigner energy. This is a process especially
important for neutron moderators and nuclear reactor vessels (see ductility).

 The primary embrittlement mechanism of plastics is gradual loss of

plasticizers, usually by overheating or aging.

 The primary embrittlement mechanism of asphalt is by oxidation, which is

most severe in warmer climates. Asphalt pavement embrittlement can lead to
various forms of cracking patterns, including longitudinal, transverse, and
block (hexagonal). Asphalt oxidation is related to polymer degradation, as
these materials bear similarities in their chemical composition

Cryogenic embrittlement
Around cryogenic temperatures plastics and rubbers become brittle, which is
known as the embrittlement temperature

Topologically Close-Packed Phases:

These are generally undesirable, brittle phases that can form during heat
treatment or service. The cell structure of these phases have close-packed atoms in
layers separated by relatively large interatomic distances. The layers of close
packed atoms are displaced from one another by sandwiched larger atoms,
developing a characteristic "topology." These compounds have been characterized
as possessing a topologically close-packed (TCP) structure.
 Conversely, Ni3Al (gamma prime) is close-packed in all directions and is
called geometrically close-packed (GCP).

CPs ( , µ, Laves, etc.) usually form as plates (which appear as needles on a

single-plane microstructure.) The plate-like structure negatively affects mechanical
properties (ductility and creep-rupture.) Sigma appears to be the most deleterious
while strength retention has been observed in some alloys containing mu and
Laves. TCPs are potentially damaging for two reasons: they tie up and '
strengthening elements in a non-useful form, thus reducing creep strength, and they
can act as crack initiators because of their brittle nature.

Hardening Mechanics:

Hardening is a metallurgical and metalworking process used to increase the

hardness of a metal. The hardness of a metal is directly proportional to the uniaxial
yield stress at the location of the imposed strain. A harder metal will have a higher
resistance to plastic deformation than a less hard metal.

In General strengthing are

(a) Strain hardening or cold working or work hardening

(b) Grain boundary strenthing

For alloys,

(1) Solid solution hardening (2) Age hardening (3) Dispersion hardening

Solid solution strengthening

Solid solution strengthening is a type of alloying that can be used to improve

the strength of a pure metal. The technique works by adding atoms of one element
(the alloying element) to the crystalline lattice of another element (the base metal).
The alloying element diffuses into the matrix, forming a solid solution
Precipitation hardening (or) Age hardening

Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment

technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including most
structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and some stainless
steels.

In super alloys, it is known to cause yield strength anomaly providing

excellent high temperature strength.
Grain boundary strengthening (or) Hall–Petch strengthening

Grain-boundary strengthening (or Hall–Petch strengthening) is a method of

strengthening materials by changing their average crystallite (grain) size.

It is based on the observation that grain boundaries impede dislocation

movement and that the number of dislocations within a grain have an effect on
how easily dislocations can traverse grain boundaries and travel from grain to
grain.

So, by changing grain size one can influence dislocation movement and
yield strength. For example, heat treatment after plastic deformation and changing
the rate of solidification are ways to alter grain size.
 This is a schematic roughly illustrating the concept of dislocation pile up and
how it affects the strength of the material. A material with larger grain size is able
to have more dislocation to pile up leading to a bigger driving force for
dislocations to move from one grain to another. Thus you will have to apply less
force to move a dislocation from a larger than from a smaller grain, leading
materials with smaller grains to exhibit higher yield stress.

Work hardening:

In work hardening (also referred to as strain hardening or cold working) the

material is strained past its yield point. The plastic straining generates new
dislocations. As the dislocation density increases, further dislocation movement
becomes more difficult since they hinder each other, which means the material
hardness increases
 Stain hardening (also referred to as work hardening or cold working) dates
back to the Bronze Age and is perhaps the first widely used strengthening
mechanism for metals. Artisans hammered and bent metals to desired shapes and
achieved superior strength in the process. Typical cold-worked commercial
products that find used today include cold-drawn piano wire and cold-rolled sheet
metal. Strain hardening results from dramatic increases in the number of
dislocation-dislocation interactions and which reduces dislocation mobility. As a
result, larger stresses must be applied in order that additional deformation may take
place. It is interesting to note that the strength of a metal approaches extremely
high levels when there are either no dislocations present (recall Equation) or when
the number of dislocation is extremely high ; low strength levels correspond to the
presence of moderate numbers of dislocation