PART-A

1) HHH
2) BHNH
3) GYYG
4) HFFJ
5) JHGVFH
6) HJY
7) HJYG
8) HI
9) UUI
10) JUUI

PART-B
11) (a)

Creep Variables
Creep resistant materials are used at high temperatures. They are capable
of withstanding such temperatures without undergoing creep upto a certain
limit. The following are the factors that influence the creep property of a
material.
(i) Higher creep resistance is observed with metals having high melting point.
Creep becomes significant above 0.4 Tm . Metals such as iron, cobalt,
molybdenum, tungsten that have high melting temperature are used in high
temperature services.
(ii) A coarsed grained metal has high creep resistance than a fine gained metal.
At creep temperatures the grain boundaries become quasi – viscous. The coarse
grained materials have less total grain boundary and hence it.
(iii) Dispersion hardening improves creep resistance.

(iv) Metals having higher oxidation and scaling resistance have more creep
strength.

(v) For steels, increase in carbon content increases creep resistance.

(vi) Aluminium, when added to steal acts as deoxidizer, this makes the steel to
resist creep.

(vii) Creep resistance is increased by adding alloying elements such as; W, Mo, V,
Cr, Ti, Nb and Co, these elements form carbides with the iron present in steel.
The presence of carbides increase the resistance to soften at elevated
temperatures thus resisting creep.

(b)
Creep curve
The creep is tested for a material by subjecting the specimen at constant tensile stress
at constant temperature and measuring the extent of strain or deformation with respect
to time. (The creep test is similar to a tension test but under the influence of
temperature). A typical creep curve is shown in figure.

The curve shows three stages of elongation. I. (a) Initial instantaneous elongation after
the application of load. (b) Primary of Transient creep. II. Secondary or viscous or steady
state creep. III. Tertiary creep or accelerated creep.
Instantaneous elongation : This a stage that is initially observed. With the first
application of load an instantaneous elastic strain occurs. If the initial load applied is
higher then there is some plastic strain, in such a case the instantaneous elongation is
elastic strain + plastic strain.
Primary creep or Transient creep : At the beginning of primary creep there is strain
hardening effect (i.e., The material resists deformation and becomes hard due to its own
elongation ) and the deformation is slow at a decreasing rate. For low melting
temperature metals, primary creep is the predominant creep process.
 Secondary creep or steady state creep : In this region the creep is constant and the
creep rate is constant. The reason for this steady state is due to an equilibrium between
the strain hardening effect and the annealing effect.
Tertiary creep or accelerated creep : This is the final stage of creep before fracture. The
creep occurs rapidly because of a decreases in cross-sectional area and necking of the
specimen occurs, the true stress increases rapidly. During this stage there is progressive
damage to the intercrystalline regions by the formation of voids and sivere oxidation of
the metal (note : oxidation occurs because the material is tested for creep at elevated
temperature). The material is unable to strain harden and finally fractures. Du ring
tertiary creep there are changes to the microstructure, grain coarsening and
recrystallisation, these factors are also responsible for the acceleration of the creep.

12) (a)
13)

Brittle-ductile transition zone

The brittle-ductile transition zone is the strongest part of the Earth's

crust. For quartz and feldspar rich rocks in continental crust this occurs at an
approximate depth of 13–18 km (roughly equivalent to temperatures in the range
250-400°C). At this depth rock becomes less likely to fracture, and more likely to
deform ductilely by creep. This happens because the brittle strength of a material
is increased by the confining pressure, whilst the ductile strength of a material
decreases with increasing temperature. The transition zone occurs at the level in
the crust where the downwards increasing brittle strength equals the upwards
increasing ductile strength, giving a characteristic "saw-tooth" crustal strength
profile. This zone is, therefore, the strongest part of the crust and the depth at
which many earthquakes occur. The level of the transition zone depends on both
strain rate and temperature gradient, being shallower for slow deformation
and/or high heat flow and deeper for fast deformation and/or low heat flow.
Crustal composition will also affect the depth at which this zone occurs.

Sections of fault zones once active in the transition zone, and now exposed at the
surface, typically have a complex overprinting of brittle and ductile rock types.
Cataclasites or pseudotachylite breccias with mylonite clasts are common, as are
ductily deformed cataclasites and pseudotachylites

The ductile–brittle transition temperature (DBTT), nil ductility temperature (NDT), or

nil ductility transition temperature of a metal represents the point at which the fracture
energy passes below a pre-determined point (for steels typically 40 J[6] for a standard
Charpy impact test). DBTT is important since, once a material is cooled below the
DBTT, it has a much greater tendency to shatter on impact instead of bending or
deforming. For example, zamak 3 exhibits good ductility at room temperature but
shatters at sub-zero temperatures when impacted. DBTT is a very important
consideration in materials selection when the material in question is subject to
mechanical stresses. A similar phenomenon, the glass transition temperature, occurs
with glasses and polymers, although the mechanism is different in these amorphous
materials.

In some materials this transition is sharper than others. For example, the transition is
generally sharper in materials with a body-centered cubic (BCC) lattice than those with
a face-centered cubic (FCC) lattice. DBTT can also be influenced by external factors such
as neutron radiation, which leads to an increase in internal lattice defects and a
corresponding decrease in ductility and increase in DBTT.

The most accurate method of measuring the BDT or DBT temperature of a material is by
fracture testing. Typically, four point bend testing at a range of temperatures is
performed on pre-cracked bars of polished material. For experiments conducted at
higher temperatures, dislocation activity increases. At a certain temperature,
dislocations shield the crack tip to such an extent the applied deformation rate is not
sufficient for the stress intensity at the crack-tip to reach the critical value for fracture
(KiC). The temperature at which this occurs is the ductile–brittle transition temperature.
If experiments are performed at a higher strain rate, more dislocation shielding is
required to prevent brittle fracture and the transition temperature is raised.
14)
15)
16) Types

I) Brittle fracture

II) Ductile fracture

Brittle fracture

In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture.

In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by cleavage as the result of
tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic planes with low bonding
(cleavage planes). In amorphous solids, by contrast, the lack of a crystalline
structure results in a conchoidal fracture, with cracks proceeding normal to the
applied tension.