MODULE- II IPMEM

Plastic deformation is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, particularly metals, when

they are subjected to external forces that exceed a certain threshold, resulting in a permanent
change in shape without fracturing. Unlike elastic deformation, where a material returns to
its original shape after the force is removed, plastic deformation involves the movement of
dislocations within the material's crystal structure, leading to a change in shape that is
retained even after the forces are removed.
The critical resolved shear stress (CRSS) is a fundamental concept in the context of plastic
deformation. It refers to the minimum shear stress required to initiate the movement of
dislocations along a particular slip plane in a crystal lattice. Dislocations are line defects or
imperfections in the regular arrangement of atoms within a crystal, and their motion is what
enables plastic deformation to occur.
• Crystal Structure: Metals have a crystalline structure, where atoms are arranged in a
repeating pattern. The arrangement of atoms and the presence of crystallographic
planes determine how the material responds to external forces.
• Slip Systems: Within a crystalline material, certain planes and directions allow for
easier movement of dislocations. These specific combinations of planes and directions
are known as slip systems. When an external force is applied, dislocations move along
these slip systems, allowing for plastic deformation.
• Shear Stress: When a force is applied to a material, it generates an internal resistance
that opposes the deformation. In the context of plastic deformation, the shear stress
component parallel to the slip plane is what matters. This shear stress induces the
movement of dislocations along the slip plane.
• Critical Resolved Shear Stress: The CRSS is the minimum shear stress required to
initiate the motion of dislocations along a specific slip system. If the applied shear
stress is below the CRSS, no plastic deformation occurs because the dislocations
remain pinned. However, once the applied shear stress exceeds the CRSS, dislocations
start moving, and plastic deformation begins.
• Grain Boundaries: In polycrystalline materials (materials composed of many small
crystalline regions called grains), the orientation of the grains and their boundaries
influence the effective CRSS. In some orientations, the critical resolved shear stress
may be lower, making those grains more susceptible to deformation.
• Strain Hardening: As plastic deformation continues, the material becomes harder and
stronger due to the accumulation of dislocations at obstacles like grain boundaries and
other dislocations. This phenomenon is known as strain hardening.
Dislocation Theory:
Dislocations are line defects in the crystal lattice of a material. They are responsible for the
plastic deformation of metals. There are two main types of dislocations: edge dislocations

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and screw dislocations. Edge dislocations occur when an extra plane of atoms is inserted into
the crystal lattice, while screw dislocations involve the lattice spiraling around a central axis.
Deformation by Slip and Twinning:
Deformation by slip refers to the movement of dislocations along specific crystallographic
planes in response to an applied shear stress. This movement leads to the plastic deformation
of the material. Twinning, on the other hand, involves the formation of a twin crystal
structure due to atomic displacements across a twin plane. Twins are a specific type of
crystallographic defect that can contribute to plastic deformation as well.
Plastic Deformation in Polycrystalline Metals:
Polycrystalline metals consist of multiple crystalline grains with different orientations.
Plastic deformation in such materials occurs as dislocations move through the grains. The
presence of grain boundaries can hinder dislocation movement, leading to strain hardening as
dislocations pile up at the boundaries.
Yield Point Phenomenon and Related Effects:
The yield point is a critical point in stress-strain curves where the material transitions from
elastic deformation to plastic deformation. Not all materials exhibit a distinct yield point;
some undergo a gradual yielding process. The yield point phenomenon is closely related to
the onset of dislocation motion.
• Elastic Deformation: Up to the elastic limit, stress and strain are proportional, and the
material returns to its original shape once the stress is removed.
• Plastic Deformation: Beyond the elastic limit, permanent deformation occurs as
dislocations move and the material undergoes plastic flow.
• Yield Point: In some materials, there's a well-defined yield point where plastic
deformation begins. The stress at the yield point is called the yield strength.
• Upper Yield Point: Some materials show a temporary increase in stress after the initial
yield point due to the rearrangement of dislocations. This is the upper yield point.
• Lower Yield Point: Following the upper yield point, stress decreases as dislocations
continue to move until reaching a lower yield point.
• Yield Strength and Plasticity: Yield strength is an important mechanical property that
characterizes a material's resistance to plastic deformation. Materials with higher yield
strengths tend to be less ductile (less prone to plastic deformation).
Annealing:
Annealing is a heat treatment process used to modify the properties of a material, particularly
metals, by heating it to a specific temperature and then allowing it to cool slowly. The
purpose of annealing is to relieve internal stresses, improve ductility, reduce hardness, and
alter the microstructure. There are different types of annealing, including:

MODULE – 2 IPMEM SHIBASHISH RATH

 1. Full Annealing: Involves heating the material to a temperature above its critical
temperature, holding it there to ensure uniform temperature throughout, and then
slowly cooling it. This process softens the material and reduces its strength.
2. Process Annealing: Used to restore ductility to cold-worked materials without
affecting their mechanical properties significantly.
3. Stress Relief Annealing: Aims to reduce internal stresses within a material without
causing significant changes to its microstructure.
Recovery:
Recovery is the initial stage of the annealing process. It occurs during heating and involves
the removal of some of the dislocations introduced during plastic deformation. This process
helps in reducing the internal stresses and improving the material's mechanical properties to
some extent.
Recrystallization:
Recrystallization is a heat treatment process that follows recovery. After recovery, if the
material is further heated, new strain-free and equiaxed grains (crystallites) are formed
within the material. This is due to the nucleation and growth of new grains to replace the
deformed ones. Recrystallization helps to restore the material's ductility and produce a more
homogeneous microstructure.
Grain Growth:
Grain growth occurs when the recrystallized grains continue to grow in size at elevated
temperatures. This is a natural process driven by differences in grain boundary energy.
Larger grains grow at the expense of smaller ones, resulting in a more uniform grain size
distribution. However, excessive grain growth can lead to decreased mechanical properties.
Hot Working:
Hot working, also known as hot deformation, refers to plastic deformation processes carried
out at elevated temperatures above the material's recrystallization temperature. Hot working
takes advantage of the material's increased ductility and reduced flow stress at high
temperatures. Common hot working processes include forging, rolling, extrusion, and hot
stamping. Hot working allows for significant shaping and forming of materials without
excessive strain hardening.
Alloys are materials composed of two or more elements, with at least one of those elements
being a metal. The combination of these elements can result in enhanced properties
compared to the individual elements. Let's explore the concept of alloy formation, types of
alloys, solid solutions, and factors governing solid solubility, including the size factor:
Alloy Formation:
Alloys are formed by mixing elements together to create a new material with improved
properties. The mixing can occur at the atomic or molecular level, resulting in a mixture that

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is usually homogeneous. The reasons for creating alloys include enhancing mechanical
properties, improving corrosion resistance, modifying electrical conductivity, and more.
Types of Alloys:
Alloys can be broadly categorized into several types:
1. Substitutional Alloys: In these alloys, atoms of the alloying element replace some of
the atoms in the host metal's crystal lattice. This type of alloying occurs when the sizes
and crystal structures of the host metal and alloying element are similar. Examples
include brass (copper and zinc) and bronze (copper and tin).
2. Interstitial Alloys: Here, smaller atoms of the alloying element occupy the spaces
between the atoms of the host metal's crystal lattice. The size difference between the
host metal and the alloying element is significant. An example is steel, where carbon
atoms fit into the interstitial sites of an iron crystal lattice.
3. Intermetallic Compounds: These are compounds with distinct crystal structures
formed by the combination of two or more metals. The resulting properties can be
significantly different from those of the individual metals. Intermetallic compounds
are often brittle but can have unique properties, making them valuable in specific
applications.
Solid Solutions:
Solid solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more elements in a single-phase
structure. In the context of alloys, solid solutions can occur when the atoms of the alloying
elements are evenly distributed within the crystal lattice of the host metal. These can be
substitutional solid solutions, interstitial solid solutions, or a combination of both.
Factors Governing Solid Solubility:
1. Size Factor: The solubility of one element in another within a solid solution is
influenced by various factors. One significant factor is the size factor, which refers to
the relative sizes of the atoms involved:
2. Hume-Rothery Rules: These rules provide guidelines for predicting the formation of
solid solutions. One important rule related to size is the atomic size difference. If the
atomic size difference between the host metal and the alloying element is less than
15%, solid solubility is more likely to occur.
3. Size Mismatch: If the atomic sizes of the host metal and the alloying element are too
different, lattice distortion and strain can occur, leading to limited solubility or the
formation of intermetallic compounds.
4. Size Match: When the atomic sizes are similar, atoms can substitute or occupy
interstitial positions more easily, leading to better solubility.
The size factor plays a crucial role in determining whether solid solutions or intermetallic
compounds will form in an alloy. Other factors influencing solid solubility include
electronegativity, valence, and crystal structure compatibility between the host and alloying

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elements. By understanding these factors, engineers can design alloys with specific
properties tailored to various applications.
Valency Factor:
The valency factor, also known as the valence electron factor, is a consideration when
forming solid solutions in alloys. It refers to the ratio of the valence electrons of the solute
atoms to the valence electrons of the solvent atoms. The valency factor influences the
electron distribution and bonding characteristics within the solid solution. A close match in
valency factors between the solute and solvent can enhance solid solubility and minimize
lattice distortion.
Crystal Structure Factor:
The crystal structure factor relates to the compatibility of the crystal structures of the solute
and solvent elements. In order to form a solid solution, the crystal structures of both elements
should be similar. This factor accounts for the arrangement of atoms in the crystal lattice,
including factors like atomic size, packing efficiency, and coordination number. A good
match in crystal structures enhances the likelihood of solid solution formation.
Chemical Affinity Factor:
The chemical affinity factor, also referred to as the atomic bonding factor, considers the
similarity of the chemical bonding between the solute and solvent atoms. Similar types of
atomic bonds and bonding energies promote the formation of solid solutions. Elements with
similar electronegativities and bonding characteristics are more likely to form solid solutions
with enhanced stability.
Order-Disorder Transformation:
The order-disorder transformation is a phase transformation that involves changes in the
arrangement of atoms in a crystal lattice. In an ordered structure, atoms are arranged in a
specific pattern, while in a disordered structure, the arrangement lacks a specific pattern.
This transformation often occurs due to changes in temperature.
1. Ordering: At lower temperatures, atoms may arrange themselves in an ordered
manner, forming a distinct crystal structure with a specific arrangement of atoms. This
can lead to improved mechanical properties but reduced thermal stability.
2. Disordering: When the temperature increases, atoms gain thermal energy and may
move into more random positions, causing the structure to become disordered. This
can improve thermal stability but might lower mechanical properties.
3. Order-Disorder Alloys: Some alloys undergo order-disorder transformations, where
atoms alternate between ordered and disordered arrangements. These transformations
can significantly affect the alloy's properties.

MODULE – 2 IPMEM SHIBASHISH RATH