CRITERIA FOR CONTRAST

A. PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY

B. RULES AND CONSTRAINTS
C. THE PHONEME SYSTEMS

Group 8
1. Widya Pratiwi PK
2. Ainul Inayah
3. Evi Rahmawati
A.PHONOLOGY AND MORPHOLOGY

Phonology is a branch of linguistics that identifies language units as sound,

while morphology is a branch that identifies basic units in grammatical
units. for example we take the word "unreal". in that word, phonologically
it consists of 6 phonemes (u,n,r,e,a,l), whereas morphologically the word
consists of 2 minimal units, namely un- and real. so what counts in
phonology is the phoneme while in morphology it is the gramatical unit
(morferm). phonemes here are the smallest units of language that can still
show differences in meaning, and phonemes here take the form of sounds,
for example; between the word "Tikar" and "Takar" here there are different
phonemes, different sounds as well as meanings. whereas morferm itself is
a unit of gramatical.
The archiphoneme is useful in signaling cases where oppositions are
suspended, but has two problems.
First, a representation like / mEri / is three ways ambiguous for a
General American speaker, since it could be Mary, merry or marry: this
might in fact be quite appropriate, because the three sounds the same at
the phonetic level, but it would be helpful to have a way of identifying,
somewhere in the phonology, just which is which.
Secondly, in some cases that look rather like neutralization, the
archiphoneme cannot really be invoked.
Neutralization always involves a regular suspension of contrast in a
particular phonetic context. Here, we are dealing with an alternation
between two phonemes, / f / and / v /, in a particular grammatical
context. Leaf has a final / f /, and leaves a medial / v / -there is no
intermediate, archiphonemic form here.
before certain suffixes, the shape of the final consonant of a stem may
change: hence / k /, / s / and /ʃ/, otherwise three distinct phonemes as
in kin, sin and shin, occur predictably depending on whether the stem
electric stands alone, or has a similar suffix.
as in kitty, or [t] before [i], as in pretty or Betty the fact that these sounds
don't appear in electricity or presidency, where we find [s] instead,
reflects the function of -ity and -y as suffixes in those cases.
Electri[k] electri[s]ity
Presiden[t] presiden[s]y
B. RULES AND CONSTRAINTS

Morphophonemics lays between the areas of morphology and

phonology.

A morphophoneme is a theoretical unit at a deeper level of

abstraction than traditional phonemes, and is taken to be a unit from
which morphemes are built up. A morphophoneme within a
morpheme can be expressed in different ways in
different allomorphs of that morpheme (according
to morphophonological rules). For example, the English plural
morpheme -s appearing in words such as cats and dogs can be
considered to consist of a single morphophoneme, which might be
written (for example) //z// or |z|, and which is pronounced as [s]
after most voiceless consonant (as in cats) and [z] in most other cases
(as in dogs).
Children learn the generalisations about the distribution of allophones as
they learn their native language. Rule based theories also include
redundancy rules and and phonotactic constraints.

Optimality Theory
Phonologists in Optimality Theory don’t write rules; they express all
phonologi-cal generalisations using constraints. Instead of saying that a
particular underlying form changes into something else in a particular
environment, constraints set out what must happen or cannot happen.

In most versions of Optimality Theory, all the constraints are assumed to

be universal and innate: children are born with the constraints already in
place, so all they have to do is to work out how important each constraint
is in the structure of the language they learn and produce a ranking
accordingly.
 C. THE PHONEME SYSTEMS

The introduction of features reveals phonemes, not as the Ultimate smallest unit
of the phonology,but as cover-symbols for a range of properties.however, it also
permits a higher-level perspective,exploring natural classes, and the motivation
for similar patterns of behaviour in groups of phonemes.
For one thing, setting out a phoneme system can be extremely helpful to a
phonologist in deciding which phoneme to purpose for particular groups of
allophones, and in checking that her decisions accord with native speakers
intuitions
For instance, some phonologist consider the english velar and nasal as a
phonemic sequence of /ng/ and /nk/, as it certainly was historical, even
in cases where no /g/ or /k/ now appears phonetically. Hence, bang
would be analysed as /hang/, with the alveolar nasal having a velar
allophones before velar plosives, and the velar plosives subsequently
being deleted after a velar nasal at the end of syllables.
Similarly, consider the english affricates [t] and [d3], in church and judge.
These could be phonemicised either as single unit (albeit single units with
two phrase: recall that affricates have a stop phase, followed by a brief
fricative phase as the stop is gradually released)
Recall the discussion of distinguishing <p> and <b> in writing, where
there is a certain amount of tolerance built into the system concerning the
placement of the loop, this would not be maintained if an intermediate if
an intermediate symbol, <b>, was introduced similarly, it is possible to keep
the allophones of labial, alveolar, and velar stops distinct, because there is a
considerable amount of phonetic space between them in terms of
articulation.
In English, palatal allophones of/k g/ or dental allophones of/t d/ do not
interfere with the realisation of any other stops.
Looking at phonemes system may perhaps help phonologist identify
weak spots in the language which are likely targets for later changes, as
well as exemplifying some of the general principles native speakers pay
attention to when learning and using their language
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