Z Transform Lecture Notes

Frequency Transform
Illustration of the relationships between Laplace transform, z-transform

and Fourier transform. For discrete-time signals Laplace transform
becomes z-transform.
Definition of Z-Transform
• The z-transform of a discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as the
power series

Z xn   X z    x n  z n
n  
where z is a complex .
Definition of Z-Transform
   xnr  e
 
X z  z re j   xn re j  n
 n  jn
n   n  
-Damped and growing sinusoids are suitable for transient signal analysis
- Steady sinusoid is suitable for steady-state analysis
Z-Plane and Unit Circle
-j axis of s-plane (the locus of Fourier transform) is mapped onto the unit
circle of the z-plane at the radius of 1
- the areas to its left and right are mapped into and outside the unit circle
respectively
Region of Convergence (ROC)
• Equation 5.5 gives
 xnre 
 
X z  z re j  j  n
  xnr  n  jn
e
n   n  
• which is the Fourier transform of the modified

sequence x(n)r-n.
• If r = 1, i.e. |z| = 1, X(z) reduces to its Fourier
transform.
• The series of the above equation converges if x(n)r-n is
absolutely summable, i.e.

 xn r
n  
n

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5
2013. Sharifah Saon
Z-Transform of Impulse Signal
Z-Transform of Shifted Impulse Signal
Z-Transform of Right-Sided Exponential Signal
Z-Transform of Left-Sided Exponential Signal
Z-Transform of Two-Sided Exponential Signal
Some Common z-Transform Pairs
Example 5.2
• Determine the z-transform of the
following finite duration signals and their
ROC.

i. x[n] = {3, 1, 2, 5, 7, 0, 1}

i. x[n] = {1, 2, 5, 4, 0, 1}

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
i. Taking z-transform,
X(z) = 3z3 + z2 + 2z + 5 + 7z-1 + z-3
ROC: (Two-sided)
Entire z-plane except at z = 0 and z = .
ii. Taking z-transform,

X(z) = 1 + 2z-1 + 5z-2 + 4z-3 + z-5
ROC: (Causal)
Entire z-plane except at z = 0.
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2013. Sharifah Saon
Properties of z-Transform

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Linearity
z z
• If x1(n)  X1(z) and x2(n)  X2(z), then
z
x(n) = a1x1(n) + a2x2(n)  X(z) = a1X1(z) + a2X2(z)
where a1 and a2 are arbitrary constants.
• It implies that the z-transform of a linear

combination of signals is the same linear
combination of their z-transforms.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.3
• Determine the z-transform of the signal
x(n) = δ(n + 1) + 3δ(n) + 6δ(n - 3) - δ(n - 4),
the corresponding discrete signals and the
region of convergence.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
Using linearity property,
i. z-transform
X(z) = Z{δ(n + 1)} + 3Z{δ(n)} + 6Z{δ(n - 3)} - Z{δ(n - 4)}
X(z) = z + 3 + 6z-3 - z-4
ii. discrete signals
x[n] = {1, 3, 0, 0, 6, -1}
iii. ROC: Entire z-plane except at z = 0 and z =
.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Time Reversal
• e

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.4
• Find the z-transform of the signal x(n) = u(-
n) and the region of convergence.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Hints:
xn  un

X z    xnz n
n 0
 
 
  unz n
 z 1 n
n 0 n 0
1

1  z 1
z

z 1
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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
• We know thatu n  
zz
, ROC: |z| > 1.
z 1
Using time reversal property,

z z 1
u  n  
z 1
 1 
z  1 z  z 1 z  1 1  z
ROC: |z| < 1

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Time Shifting
z
• If x(n)  X(z), then z
x(n - k)  z-kX(z)
• The ROC of z-kX(z) is the same as that of X(z)

except for z = 0 if k > 0 and for z =  if k < 0.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.5
• By applying the time shifting property,

determine the inverse z-transform of the
signal
1
X z  
z
1) 1
1  3z
1
X z  
z
2)

3 1  3z 1 
25
Solution
• From time shifting property, k = 1.
z 1
X z   1
 z 1
X 1 z 
1  3z
• Therefore, X z   1
1  3z 1
1
• Hence, z
xn  un X z  
1
1  z 1
z z 1
xn  un  1 X z  
1  z 1
z z 1 3z 1
xn  3 un  1 X z  
n

1  z 1 z 1 3 z 1
1  3 z 1
1  3z 1  3 z 1 z
 X 1 z    
1 
 26 1
 xn   3 n 1
un  1
3  1  3z  1  3z
Scaling
z
• If x(n)  X(z), ROC: r1 < |z| < r2, then
z
anx(n)  X(a-1z), ROC: |a|r1 < |z| < |a|r2
• where a is an arbitrary constant which can

be real or complex.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.6
• Find the z-transform of x(n) = 2nu(n - 2) by
applying the scaling property

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
z
xn  un X z  
1 z
1

1 z z 1
z z 2
xn  un  2 X z  
1  z 1
z
xn  2 un  2 X z  
n z  1 2

2z 
1 2
1  z 1 1  2 z 1
z 1 2 z 1
2
 X z  
4z
1  2 z 1
29
Differentiation
z
• If x(n)  X(z), then
dX z  1 dX  z 
nxn    z
z
or z
dz dz 1

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.7
• Find the z-transform of x(n) = n2u(n) by
applying the differentiation property.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
xn  n 2un  nnun
z dX 2  z  d  z 
x1 n  nun  z
z
 z  
dz dz  z  1   z  12
z dX 1  z  d  z 
n un X  z    z
2
  z  
2 
dz dz   z  1 
 
 z  1

z  1 1  2 z z  11 
2


 
 z  12

2

z 1
z
z  13
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2013. Sharifah Saon
Convolution
• It is expressed as n
x(n) = x1(n)x2(n) =  x1 n  k x2 k 
k 0
z z
If x1(n)  X1(z) and x2(n)  X2(z), then
z
x(n) = x1(n)  x2(n)  X(z) = X1(z) X2(z)

33
2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.8
• Find the z-transform of the convolution x[n]
of the signals
x1[n] = {4, -2, 1}

1, 0  n  3
x2 n  
0, otherwise

34
2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
X 1  z   4  2 z 1  z 2
X 2  z   1  z 1  z 2  z 3  z 4  z 5
z
x1 n x2 n X 1 z X 2  z 
 
X  z   4  2 z 1  z 2 1  z 1  z 2  z 3  z 4  z 5 
 4  4 z 1  4 z 2  4 z 3  4 z  4  4 z 5  2 z 1  2 z 2  2 z 3  2 z 4  2 z 5  2 z 6
 z  2  z 3  z  4  z 5  z  6  z  7
 4  2 z 1  3z 2  3z 3  3z  4  3 z 5  1z 6  z 7

xn  {4, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3,  1,1}

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Correlation
z z
• If x1(n)  X1(z) and x2(n)  X2(z), then

rx1 x2 l            
z
 1 2
x n
n  
x n  l R x1 x 2 z  X 1 z X 2 z 1

36
2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.9
• Determine the correlation sequence rx1 x2 l 
of the sequences given below by using the
correlation property of z-transform.
x1[n] = {1, 2, 3, 4}
x2[n] = {4, 3, 2, 1}

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
X 1  z   1  2 z 1  3 z 2  4 z 3
X 2 z   4  3 z 1  2 z 2  z 3
 
X 2 z 1  4  3 z  2 z 2  z 3
 
z
Rx1 x2  z   X 1 z X 2 z 1
 
Rx1 x2  z   1  2 z 1  3 z 2  4 z 3 4  3z  2 z 2  z 3 
 z 3  4 z 2  10 z  20  25 z 1  24 z  2  16 z 3

rx 1 x2 n  {1, 4,10, 20, 25, 24,16}
38
2013. Sharifah Saon
Initial and Final Value Theorem
• If x(n) is a causal sequence with z-transform X(z), the
initial value can be determined by using the expression
lim lim
x0  xn   X z 
n0 z 
• If the X(z) = Z(x(n)) and the poles of X(z) are all inside the
unit circle, then the final value of the sequence, x(), can
be determined by using the expression
x  
lim
n
xn  
lim
z 1

1  z 1 X z   
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39
Sharifah Saon
Example 5.10
• If X(z) = 2 + 3z-1 + 4z-2, find the initial and
final values of the corresponding sequence
x(n).

40
2013. Sharifah Saon
Time Delay (for one-sided
z-transform)
z
 k
n
xn  k  z  X z    x n z  , k > 0
z
k
 n 1 

41
2013. Sharifah Saon
Time Advance (for one-sided z-
transform)
z
 k 1
n 
xn  k  z  X z    xn z  , k > 0
z
k
 n 0 

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Evaluation of the Inverse z-Transform
• There are basically three methods to

perform the inverse z-transform
– Long division method
– Partial fraction expansion method
– Residue method

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Long division method
• The z-transform of a signal or system which is expressed as the
ratio of two polynomials in z, is simply divided out to produce a
power series in the form of an equation,
• The coefficients representing the sequence values are in the time
domain.
N z  
X z     an z n  a0 z 0  a1 z 1  a2 z 2  ...
D  z  n 0
• where the coefficients an are the values of x(n).

• From the above equation, it is clear that expansion does not result
in a closed form solution.
• Hence, if X(z) can be expanded in a power series, the coefficients
represent the inverse sequence values

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2013. Sharifah Saon
• Thus, the coefficient of z-k is the kth term in the sequence.
• The region of convergence will determine whether the series has
positive or negative exponents.
• For right hand sequences (causal sequences) will have primarily
negative exponents, while left hand sequences (anti-causal
sequences) will have positive exponents.
• For annular regions of convergence, a Laurent expansion will give
both the positive and negative exponents.
• This method is only useful for having a quick look at the first few
samples of the corresponding signals

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.11
• A system has
an impulse response h[n] = {1, 2, 3) and
output response of y[n] = {1, 1, 2, -1, 3}.
Determine the input sequence x[n] by using

long division method.

46
2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
H z   1  2 z 1  3z 2
Y z   1  z 1  2 z 2  z 3  3z 4
Y z   H z X z 
Y z 
X z    1  z 1  z 2
H z 

xn  {1,  1,1}

47
2013. Sharifah Saon
Partial Fraction Expansion Method
• The partial fraction expansion method is
used to decompose a signal or a system
transfer function into a sum of standard
functions.
• The denominator of the transfer function
H(z) need to be factorized into prime factors

48
2013. Sharifah Saon
• For simple poles, H(z) can be expressed in
the following form with m  n,
ao z m  a1 z m1  a2 z m2  ...  am
H z  
z  p1 z  p2 ...z  pn 
H z   Ao 
A1 A2 An
  ... 
z  p1 z  p2 z  pn
where
lim a , if m  n
Ao  H z    o
z   0, if m  n
Ai  z  pi H z  z  p for i  1,2,3,..., n.
i

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2013. Sharifah Saon
• With repeated linear roots, we may have
the terms
Ai1 Ai 2 Air
  ... 
z  pi z  pi 2 z  pi r
where
Air  z  pi  X z  z  p
r
i
Ai r 1 
d
z  pi r X z  z  pi
dz
1 dk
Ai r k   k
 z  pi r
X z  z  p
k! dz i
1 d r 1
Ai1   z  p r
X z  z  p
r  1! dz r 1 i i

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Example 5.12
• By using the partial fraction expansion
method, find the inverse z-transform of
 4  8 z 1
H z  
1  6 z 1  8 z 2

51
2013. Sharifah Saon
Solution
H z  
 4 z  8z
z  4z  2
H z   4z  8 A B
  
z z  4z  2 z4 z2
A  12 B 8
H z  
8 12

z2 z4
hn  8 2 n un   12 4 n un
52
2013. Sharifah Saon
Inverse z-Transfrom of Partial Fraction Expansion (PFE)
Terms

53
2013. Sharifah Saon
The Application of z-transform in DSP
• Transfer Function Realization

• Interconnected Systems
• Inverse Systems
• Equalizers

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2013. Sharifah Saon
The Transfer Function Realization
• The realization of digital filters described by
transfer functions parallels the realization
based on difference equations.
• Any filters can generally be decomposed into

two categories namely nonrecursive (feed-
forward) and recursive (feedback).

55
2013. Sharifah Saon
• The nonrecuresive filters is described by
H N z   B0  B1z 1  ...  BM z  M
yn  B0 xn  B1xn  1  ...  BM xn  M 
• The recuresive filters is described by

H R z  
1
1  A1 z 1  ...  AN z  N
yn   A1 yn  1  ...  AN yn  N   xn

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Realization of a digital filter
(a) nonrecursive and (b) recursive

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2013. Sharifah Saon
• The transfer function H(z) is the product of the transfer
functions of a recursive and a nonrecursive system.
B0  B1 z 1  ...  BN z  N
H z   1 2 N
 H N z H R z 
1  A1 z  A2 z  ...  AN z
• Its realization is thus a cascade of the realizations for the

recursive and nonrecursive portions; direct form I.
– It uses 2N delay elements to realize an Nth-order difference
equation.

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2013. Sharifah Saon
Realization of a digital filter (a) direct form I (b) direct
form II

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2013. Sharifah Saon
• Since LTI systems can be cascaded in any order, we can
switch the recursive and nonrecursive parts to get the
structure of direct form II.
• This structure suggests that each pair of feed-forward
and feedback signals can be obtained from a single delay
element instead of two.
• Thus, only N delay elements is used and results in the
direct form II.
• It is also called canonic. The term canonic implies a
realization with the minimum number of delays
elements.

60
2013. Sharifah Saon
Transposed Realization
• The direct form II also yields a transposed realization if we
turn the realization around

61
2013. Sharifah Saon

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Frequency Transform

Illustration of the relationships between Laplace transform, z-transform

• which is the Fourier transform of the modified

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ii. Taking z-transform,

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• It implies that the z-transform of a linear

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All right reserved. Copyright ©

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Using time reversal property,

ROC: |z| < 1

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• The ROC of z-kX(z) is the same as that of X(z)

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• By applying the time shifting property,

• where a is an arbitrary constant which can

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x1[n] = {4, -2, 1}

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• There are basically three methods to

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• where the coefficients an are the values of x(n).

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Determine the input sequence x[n] by using

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• Transfer Function Realization

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• Any filters can generally be decomposed into

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yn  B0 xn  B1xn  1  ...  BM xn  M 

• The recuresive filters is described by

yn   A1 yn  1  ...  AN yn  N   xn

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• Its realization is thus a cascade of the realizations for the

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