M.1.

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WHAT IS RESEARCH?
 What is research?
• Research is –
a. The systematic investigation into and study of materials,
sources, etc., in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions.

b. An endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc.

by the scientific study of a subject or by a course of
critical investigation. [Oxford Concise Dictionary]

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Why Undertake Research?

• To investigate some existing situation or problem.

• To provide solutions to a problem.

• To explore and analyse more general issues.

• To construct or create a new procedure or system.

• To explain a new phenomenon.

• To generate new knowledge.

 Aims of social research
To explore social reality
• to explain social life by providing reliable, valid and well-
documented information
• to evaluate the status of social issues and their effects on
society
• to make predictions
• to develop and/or test theories

To understand human behaviour and action

To offer a basis for a critique of social reality

• to emancipate people
• to suggest possible solutions to social problems
• to empower and liberate people
 Paradigm

Methodologies

Methods
 Paradigm
• A set of propositions that explain how the world is
perceived
• A general philosophical orientation about the world and
the nature of research that a researcher brings to a study.
• It contains a set of worldview, a way of breaking down the
complexity of the real world, telling researchers in general
‘what is important’, what is legitimate and what is reasonable
• A paradigm is a set of beliefs, values and techniques which
is shared by members of a scientific community, and which
acts as a guide or map, dictating the kinds of problems
scientists should address and the types of explanations that
are acceptable to them
Paradigm
 Positivism

•Positivism is the term used to describe an

approach to the study of society that relies
specifically on scientific evidence, such as
experiments and statistics, to reveal a true nature of
how society operates.

•Earlier researchers employed metaphysical

principles and theological beliefs to explain social
problems, attempting to relate ailments and social
structures to supernatural phenomena.
 What is Positivism?
• Defines reality as everything that can be perceived through
the senses as other sources of knowledge are unreliable

• Science is largely based on quantitative data, derived from the

use of strict rules and procedures, fundamentally different
from common sense

• Positivism is the study of social reality utilizing the

conceptual framework, the techniques of observation and
measurement, the instruments of mathematical analysis,
and the procedures of inference of the natural sciences
 Let us deconstruct …………….
• The conceptual framework: the categories of ‘natural law’,
cause and effect, empirical verification, explanation, etc.
• The techniques of observation and measurement:
• the use of quantitative variables
• Mathematical analysis: the use of statistics, mathematical
models, etc.
• The procedures of inference:
• hypotheses regarding the unknown are formed on the
basis of what is known and specific observations give rise
to general laws
• the use of theory to predict outcomes
• extrapolation from the sample to the whole population.
 Interpretivism

• Unlike Positivists, Interpretivists believe the reality is

multiple and relative

• Interpretivists help to interpret and understand the

actors' reasons for social action, the way they construct
their lives and the meanings they attach to them as well as
to comprehend the social context of social action.

• What is important here is not observable social actions but

rather the subjective meaning of such actions.
• Reality is not ‘out there’, it is in the mind of the people and
is internally experienced

• The knowledge acquired in this is socially constructed

rather than objectively determined

• Reality is not objective but subjective

• The approach employed is inductive – proceeding from the

specific to the general and from the concrete to the
abstract.
 Critical Perspective
• Critical social science was developed out of the work of
Karl Marx (1818-83) and the critical theorists and feminists

• Theoretical backbone of the critical perspective is a

combination of conflict theory, critical sociology and
Marxism and feminism.

• Main aim of the Critical perspective is to remove false

beliefs and ideas about society and social reality which is
prevalent in society

• They perceive humans as creative and compassionate human

beings and is critical of the power systems and inequality
structures that dominate and oppress people in societies.
• Reality is created not by nature but by people

• Reality is not in a state of order but of conflict, tension and

contradictions resulting in a constantly changing world

• What appears to be is not ‘reality’ – as appearance is based

on illusion and distraction

• Critical theorists stand between objectivity and subjectivity

• For them, subjective meaning are relevant but objective

cannot be denied

• Critical theorists perceive science from a standpoint that is

between positivism and interpretive social science; between
determinism and humanism or voluntarism.
 Methodology

• It is a model, which entails the theoretical principles as

well as framework that provides guidelines about how
research is done in a context of particular paradigm

• It includes basic knowledge related to the subject and

research method in question and the framework
employed in a particular context

• Methodology is determined not by the research model

but rather by principle of research entailed in research
paradigm
Methodology is defined in at least two ways.
• In one form, methodology is identical to a research
model employed by a researcher in a particular project,
including basic knowledge related to the subject and
research methods in question and the framework employed
in a particular context

• In this sense, every investigation has a distinct methodology,

and every researcher employs his or her methodology,
which might vary from study to study

• By this definition, it would seem that there are as many

methodologies as there are projects, since most projects are
unique in nature and approach.

• Hence it would be logical to call it as a research model rather

than a methodology.
• Another definition relates the nature of methodology to
a theoretical and more abstract context

• This definition perceives it in conjunction with distinctive,

unidimensional and mutually exclusive theoretical principles.

• Here, a methodology offers the research principles which

are related closely to a distinct paradigm translated clearly
and accurately, down to guidelines on acceptable research
practices.

• Methodology is determined not by the research model but

rather by principles of research entailed in a paradigm.

• The methodologies that result from this definition are the

quantitative methodology and the qualitative methodology.
 Quantitative Methodology

• Based on positivist philosophy

• Reality is objective, simple and positive

• Human beings are determined by their social world in the

same manner that the naturalistic world is governed by
fixed laws

• Metaphysics, philosophical reasoning, and speculations

are mere sophistry and illusion - they cannot have reliable
and verifiable data and do not have empirical relevance
 Critique of Quantitative Methodology
• Social phenomena exists not out there but in minds of
people their interpretations

• Reality cannot be defined objectively alone, but also

subjectively

• It restricts experiences in two ways - first, by directing

research to what is perceived by the senses and second, by
employing only standardized tool, based on quantifiable data
to test hypothesis

• Quantitative research take natural science as a model- such

an attempt is not feasible- neither in theoretical perception
of reality nor in their methodological approaches.
 Qualitative Methodology
• Qualitative methodology is everything that is not
quantitative

• Social world is human creation – not a discovery

• It tries to capture reality in interaction

• Inductive analysis in which the evaluator is immersed in the

details and specifics of data to discover important
categories

• Holistic inquiry, in that the whole phenomena under the

study is understood as a complex system that is more than
sum of its parts
 Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
N Qualitative research Quantitative research
o
1 Subjective – concern with opinion, objective
experiences and feelings of individuals

2 Holistic Reductionist – identify a set of

variables
3 Phenomenological Scientific
4 Descriptive Experimental
5 Naturalistic Contrived
6 Inductive – generate theories Deductive – test proposed theories
7 Small sample – direct data collection, Representative sample
interview, observation
8 Results – generalizability is not an aim Usually generalizability is an
important aim
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 Methods
• Methods are tools of data generation and analysis

• a-theoretical

• a-methodological

• Content analysis, interview method, observation, case study,

life histories, etc.

• Though methods in general a-methodological but their

content, structure and process are dictated by underlying
methodology
 Types of Research

Exploratory research
Takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of
a phenomenon.

This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity

with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or
ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation.
Descriptive research
• Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon
the issue of what is happening, or how much of it has
happened, rather than why it is happening.

Explanatory research
• This type of research is involved in explaining why
something happens, and assessing causal relationships
between variables.

Predictive research
• Forecasts future phenomena, based on the
interpretations suggested by explanatory research.
 Primary and Secondary Research

Primary research
Refers to research that has involved the collection of
original data specific to that particular research project, for
example through using research methods such as
questionnaires or interviews.

Secondary research
Refers to research where no such original data is collected,
but the research project uses existing (or secondary)
sources of data, for example census or archive data.
 Theoretical And Empirical Research

Theoretical research generally uses the findings from

existing works to develop new ideas through analysing
existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not
tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary
data.

Empirical research supports the development of new

ideas through the collection of data (empirical =
observation or measurement rather than theoretical
reasoning).
 The Research Process

1. Identification of general problem/question

2. Literature review
3. Specify questions/hypotheses
4. Determination of design/methodology
5. Data collection
6. Data analysis/presentation
7. Interpretation of findings
 How to read Research?

1. Locate and read a few articles from within a field you are
comfortable with.
2. Read studies that are of interest to you.
3. Read the abstract first.
4. Identify the research question and objectives.
5. Why did the researcher(s) choose a particular setting or
sample?
6. What were the methods chosen to collect data?
7. What were the most important findings?
8. Do not be over-concerned with statistical analysis.
9. Be critical but objective.
 Research Ethics
• Research is dynamic process which involves
researchers and the respondents – which is based on
mutual trust and cooperation, as well as on promises
and well-accepted conventions and expectations

• On the basis of this, researcher enters the research field

with relatively few limits and many options for actions

• This freedom of action has always been thought to

offer the best opportunities for answering the research
questions or solving problem under investigation
 Ethical Standard
• Accuracy in data gathering and data processing
• Relevant research methodology
• Appropriate interpretation of the data
• Accurate reporting
• Fabrication of data is misconduct
• Falsification of data is misconduct
 Researcher – respondent relations
• Proper identifications
• Clear outset (researcher should inform the
respondents of the type of questions and the
degree of sensitivity)
• Welfare of the respondents
• Free and informed consent
• Right to privacy
• Right to anonymity
• Right to confidentiality
Researcher – Researcher Relations

• Misleading ascription of authorship:

researcher should not list the authors
without their permission

• Misuse of authority and goal

• Plagiarism
 Informed consent

• Research procedure must be described accurately and

its goal presented in easily understandable term
• The possibility of risk and injury or discomfort must
be explained
• Eventual benefits from the research for the subjects
and science in general must be stated
• Alternative procedures that might be advantageous
must be revealed
• The subjects must be given opportunity to ask
questions about research