Case Study 1: Aflatoxins: 78.100 Food Safety Today and Tomorrow Michael Trevan Gary Fulcher

Case Study 1:
Aflatoxins
• Aflatoxins are toxic metabolites (mycotoxins)
produced by certain fungi in/on foods and feeds
• Best known and most intensively researched
mycotoxins in the world
• Lead to aflatoxicosis in livestock , domestic
animals and humans throughout the world
• Aflatoxins exert carcinogenic effects in
susceptible laboratory animals and acute
toxicological effects in humans
Michael Trevan 78.100 Food Safety Today and Tomorrow Gary Fulcher
History
• 1960 <100,000 turkeys in England died in a few months from an
apparently new disease that was termed "Turkey X disease“
• Ducklings and young pheasants were also affected
• All outbreaks were associated with Brazilian peanut meal in feeds

which was highly toxic to poultry and ducklings with symptoms typical
of Turkey X disease
• The toxin-producing fungus was identified as Aspergillus flavus (1961)

and the toxin was given the name Aflatoxin by virtue of its origin
(A.flavis--> Afla).
• Aflatoxins are produced primarily by some strains of A. Flavus and by

most , if not all , strains of A. parasiticus , plus related species, A.
nomius and A. niger
Occurence of aflatoxins influenced by several
environmental factors:
geographic location (e.g. soil type and

microbes)
agronomic practices (rotations, density, etc
susceptibility of commodities to fungal

invasion during preharvest , storage, and/or
processing periods
• NOTE:
– Absolute safety is never achieved
– Many countries to limit exposure to

aflatoxins by imposing regulatory limits on
commodities intended for use as food and
feed .
Some Chemistry
• four major aflatoxins : B1 , B2 , G1 , G2

plus additional metabolic products which
also are toxic
• 18 compounds in total
difuranocoumarins
Occurrence
• In Raw Agricultural Products :
– Aflatoxins often occur in crops in the field prior to
harvest
– Postharvest contamination can occur when moist
– Aflatoxins are found in milk, cheese, corn, peanuts,

cottonseed, nuts, almonds, figs, spices
– Commodities with the highest risk of aflatoxin

contamination are corn, peanuts, and cottonseed.
Factors:
Fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination

are the consequence of interactions
among the fungus, the host and the
environment
Occurrence (cont’d)
• In Processed Foods:
– Corn is of greatest worldwide concern:
• grown in climates that are likely to have perennial

contamination with aflatoxins
• corn is the staple food of many countries
• procedures used to process of corn help to reduce

contamination of the resulting food product (e.g.
unstable in processes used to make tortillas with
alkaline conditions)
• Aflatoxin-contaminated corn and cottonseed meal in

dairy rations have resulted in aflatoxin M1 contaminated
milk and milk products
• Aflatoxicosis and Animal Health:
– Aflatoxicosis is primarily a hepatic disease

and causes liver damage, decreased milk and
egg production, embryo damage
– All aflatoxins have been shown to cause

various types of cancer in different animal
species.
Aflatoxins and Human Health
• Humans are exposed to aflatoxins by consuming foods
contaminated with products of fungal growth .
• Exposure is difficult to avoid
• Evidence of acute aflatoxicosis in humans has been

reported from many parts of the world
• The syndrome is characterized by vomiting, abdominal

pain, pulmonary edema, convulsions, coma, and death
with cerebral edema and fatty involvment of the liver ,
kidneys , and heart.
Control and Management of
Aflatoxins
• A- Regulatory Control :
– Aflatoxins are considered unavoidable

contaminants of food and feed,
– The action level for human food is 20 ppb total
aflatoxins, with the exception of milk which has an
action level of 0.5 ppb for aflatoxin M1.
– The action level for most feeds is also 20 ppb.
Action Levels for Aflatoxins
Methods of Analysis for
Aflatoxins in Foods and Feeds
Complex extractions
Chromatography
Fluorescence
• B- Detoxification Strategies :
• Structural Degradation Following Chemical

Treatment : alkali, acids
• Modification of Toxicity by Dietary Chemicals
• Alteration of Bioavailability by Aflatoxin
chemisorbents : A new approach to the detoxification of
aflatoxins is the addition of inorganic sorbent materials,
known as chemisorbents, such as hydrated sodium
calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) to the diet of animals.
Properties / Stability
• Heat:
Aflatoxins in dry state are very stable to heat up to the melting point.
However, in the presence of moisture and at elevated temperatures
there is destruction of aflatoxin over a period of time.
• Alkalis:
In alkali solution hydrolysis occurs which may be reversible.
• Acids:
In acids, aflatoxin B1 and G1 are converted in to aflatoxin B2A and
G2A
• Oxidizing agents:
Many oxidizing agents, such as sodium hypochlorite, chlorine,
hydrogen peroxide, and ozone react with aflatoxin
Economic Impact of Aflatoxins
• Economic impact of aflatoxins derive directly

from crop and livestock losses
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

estimates that 25% of the world's food crops are
affected by mycotoxins, of which the most
notorious are aflatoxins.
• Long term – cancer risks unknown
• Large batches of milk were dumped (US) because of
their content of aflatoxin M1 that exceeds the FDA
action Level of 0.5 ppb for milk.
Food Additives
• A food additive is any substance added to food
– "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be

expected to result -- directly or indirectly -- in its becoming a component
or otherwise affecting the characteristics of any food."
– Includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment,

packaging, transportation or storage of food
– This definition excludes ingredients whose use is generally recognized as

safe (government approval is not needed)
– Direct food additives are those that are added to a food for a specific
purpose in that food. E.g. xanthan gum -- used in salad dressings,
chocolate milk, bakery fillings, puddings and other foods to add texture --
is a direct additive.
– Indirect food additives are those that become part of the food in trace
amounts due to its packaging, storage or other handling.
Food Additives
Food including additives have been used

for many years to preserve, flavor, blend,
thicken and color foods, and have played
an important role in reducing serious
nutritional deficiencies among consumers.
Why are food additives and colors
used in foods?
• To Maintain or Improve Safety and Freshness:
– Preservatives slow product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria,

fungi or yeast.
• To Improve or Maintain Nutritional Value:
– Vitamins and minerals (and fiber) are added to many foods to make
up for those lacking in a person's diet or lost in processing
• Improve Taste, Texture and Appearance:
– Spices, natural and artificial flavors, sweeteners food colors,

emulsifiers, stabilizers, thickeners, leavening agents, pH control,
fat replacers
Food Additives (Improvers)
• ANTIOXIDANTS
– retard oxidation of unsaturated fats and oils, colorings, and flavorings
• CHELATING AGENTS
– trap trace amounts of metal atoms that would otherwise cause food to
discolor or go rancid.
• EMULSIFIERS
– keep oil and water mixed together.
• FLAVOR ENHANCERS
– have little or no flavor of their own, but accentuate the natural flavor of
foods
• THICKENING AGENTS
– are natural or chemically modified carbohydrates that absorb some of the
water that is present in food, thereby making the food thicker
• COLORANTS
• A color additive is any dye, pigment or substance which
when added or applied to a food is capable (alone or
through reactions with other substances) of imparting
color.
• Color additives are used in foods for many reasons:
– 1) to offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature

extremes, moisture and storage conditions;
– 2) to correct natural variations in color;
– 3) to enhance colors that occur naturally
– 4) to provide color to colorless and "fun" foods. (e.g. brown colas
yellow margarin, green mint ice cream)
Types of Food Ingredients
and What They Do -
Summary Examples
• Flavors and Spices

– Add specific flavors (natural and synthetic)
– E.g. Pudding and pie fillings, gelatin dessert mixes, cake mixes, salad
dressings, candies
• Preservatives
• Prevent food spoilage from bacteria, molds, fungi, or yeast
(antimicrobials);
• slow or prevent changes in color, flavor, or texture and delay
rancidity (antioxidants);
• maintain freshnessFruit sauces and jellies, beverages, baked
goods, cured meats, oils and margarines, cereals, dressings, snack
foods, fruits and vegetables
– Ascorbic acid, citric acid, sodium benzoate, calcium propionate,
sodium erythorbate, sodium nitrite, calcium sorbate, potassium
sorbate, BHA, BHT, EDTA, tocopherols (Vitamin E)
• Emulsifiers
– keep ingredients dispersed, and to help products dissolve more easily
– Salad dressings, peanut butter, chocolate, margarine, frozen
dessertsSoy lecithin, mono- and diglycerides, egg yolks, polysorbates,
sorbitan monostearate
• Sweeteners
– Add sweetness with or without the extra caloriesBeverages, baked

goods, confections, table-top sugar, substitutes, many processed
foodsSucrose (sugar), glucose, fructose, sorbitol, mannitol, corn syrup,
high fructose corn syrup, saccharin, aspartame, sucralose, acesulfame
potassium (acesulfame-K), neotame
• Stabilizers and Thickeners
– Binders, Texturizers
– Produce uniform texture, improve "mouth-feel“
– Frozen desserts, dairy products, cakes, pudding and gelatin
mixes, dressings, jams and jellies, sauces
– Gelatin, pectin, guar gum, carrageenan, xanthan gum, whey
• pH Control Agents and acidulants

– Control acidity and alkalinity,
– prevent spoilageBeverages, frozen desserts, chocolate, low
acid canned foods, baking powder
– Lactic acid, citric acid, ammonium hydroxide, sodium
carbonate
• Color Additives
– Offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature

extremes, moisture and storage conditions; correct natural
variations in color; enhance colors that occur naturally;
– provide color to colorless and "fun" foods Many processed
foods, (candies, snack foods margarine, cheese, soft drinks,
jams/jellies, gelatins, pudding and pie fillings) use FD&C Blue
Nos. 1 and 2, FD&C Green No. 3, FD&C Red Nos. 3 and 40, FD&C
Yellow Nos. 5 and 6, Orange B, Citrus Red No. 2, annatto extract,
beta-carotene, grape skin extract, cochineal extract or carmine,
paprika oleoresin, caramel color, fruit and vegetable juices,
saffron
• Anti-caking agents
– Keep powdered foods free-flowing, prevent moisture absorption
– Salt, baking powder, confectioner's sugar
– Calcium silicate, iron ammonium citrate, silicon dioxide
• Humectants
– Retain moisture
– Shredded coconut, marshmallows, soft candies, confections
– Glycerin, sorbitol
• Yeast Nutrients
– Promote growth of yeast
– Breads and other baked goods
– Calcium sulfate, ammonium phosphate
• Dough Strengtheners and Conditioners

– Produce more stable dough
– Breads and other baked goods
– Ammonium sulfate, azodicarbonamide, L-cysteine
• Leavening Agents
– Promote rising of baked goods
– Baking soda, monocalcium phosphate, calcium carbonate
– SAPP
• Firming Agents
– Maintain crispness and firmness
– Processed fruits and vegetables
– Calcium chloride, calcium lactate
• Enzyme Preparations
– Modify proteins, polysaccharides and fats
– Cheese, dairy products, meat
– Enzymes, lactase, papain, rennet, chymosin
– Gases
• Serve as propellant, aerate, or create carbonation
• Oil cooking spray, whipped cream, carbonated
beverages
• Carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide

Case Study 1: Aflatoxins: 78.100 Food Safety Today and Tomorrow Michael Trevan Gary Fulcher

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Study 1: Aflatoxins: 78.100 Food Safety Today and Tomorrow Michael Trevan Gary Fulcher

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Case Study 1:

• Ducklings and young pheasants were also affected

• All outbreaks were associated with Brazilian peanut meal in feeds

• The toxin-producing fungus was identified as Aspergillus flavus (1961)

• Aflatoxins are produced primarily by some strains of A. Flavus and by

geographic location (e.g. soil type and

agronomic practices (rotations, density, etc

susceptibility of commodities to fungal

– Absolute safety is never achieved

– Many countries to limit exposure to

• four major aflatoxins : B1 , B2 , G1 , G2

– Postharvest contamination can occur when moist

– Aflatoxins are found in milk, cheese, corn, peanuts,

– Commodities with the highest risk of aflatoxin

Fungal growth and aflatoxin contamination

• grown in climates that are likely to have perennial

• corn is the staple food of many countries

• procedures used to process of corn help to reduce

• Aflatoxin-contaminated corn and cottonseed meal in

– Aflatoxicosis is primarily a hepatic disease

– All aflatoxins have been shown to cause

• Exposure is difficult to avoid

• Evidence of acute aflatoxicosis in humans has been

• The syndrome is characterized by vomiting, abdominal

– Aflatoxins are considered unavoidable

• Structural Degradation Following Chemical

• Economic impact of aflatoxins derive directly

• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)

• Long term – cancer risks unknown

– "any substance the intended use of which results or may reasonably be

– Includes any substance used in the production, processing, treatment,

– This definition excludes ingredients whose use is generally recognized as

Food including additives have been used

– Preservatives slow product spoilage caused by mold, air, bacteria,

• To Improve or Maintain Nutritional Value:

• Improve Taste, Texture and Appearance:

– Spices, natural and artificial flavors, sweeteners food colors,

• Color additives are used in foods for many reasons:

– 1) to offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature

• Flavors and Spices

– Add sweetness with or without the extra caloriesBeverages, baked

• pH Control Agents and acidulants

– Offset color loss due to exposure to light, air, temperature

• Dough Strengtheners and Conditioners

You might also like