MODULE 1

Food safety has always been an important issue. The reasons for this are manifold. More than
ever before, there is a strong consumer awareness of food quality and safety and this
continues to increase. New risks and challenges are emerging as a result of changes in the
methods of food production at the farm and processing levels. Further challenges arise from
the emergence and re-emergence of food-borne pathogens. Consumption patterns are
changing and consumer demands regarding such issues as the variety and shelf-life of foods,
as well as, the preservation techniques used are changing. The consequence of this is that
there is an increased risk to human health, as well as, implications for international trade in
food. As a result, there has recently been a realization in many countries of the need for an
integrated approach to food safety. Maintaining food safety and quality, you would agree, is
essential in the entire chain of food production ranging from:
i) primary food production at the level of farmers
ii) primary food processing at the farm, dairy and abattoir and grain mills
iii) secondary food processing level such as canning, freezing, drying and brewing
iv) food distribution, both at the National and International level of import/export
v) food retailing and food catering, and
vi) domestic food preparation level.

DEFINITION OF FOOD SAFETY

➢ ‘Absolute food safety’ is the assurance that damage or injury from use of a substance
is impossible.
➢ ‘Relative food safety’ is the assurance that damage or injury will not result from a
food or ingredients used in a reasonable and customary manner and quantity.
FACTORS AFFECTING FOOD SAFETY
Food safety is improved by defining two other basic concepts – hazard and toxicity.
➢ ‘Hazard’ is the relative probability that harm or injury will result when the substance is
used in a proposed manner and quantity while
➢ ‘Toxicity’ is the capacity of a substance to produce harm or injury of any kind under any
conditions.
Remember, assessment of whether a food or ingredient is safe should not be based on its
inherent toxicity but on whether or not a hazard is created.

1. Physical Hazard
Physical hazards include a variety of materials often referred to as extraneous materials. It
may be defined as any foreign material not normally found in a food, which may cause
illness or injury to the individuals consuming/using the product. They may cause injury,
illness and others may never be noticed. Physical hazards include non-living things in foods,
such as stones, inedible stones, hair, glass, metal, wood, plastic, insulation material etc. These
materials can become a part of foods from the environment.

2. Biological Hazard

Among the biological hazards the major concern is from microorganisms. Biological hazards
include bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic organisms (protozoa and worms) and/or their
toxins. There are many microorganisms, which are pathogenic to humans, but relatively few
are associated with foods. There are two types of food-borne disease from microbial
pathogens: infections and intoxications. Infections result from the ingestion of live
pathogenic organisms which multiply within the body and produce disease. While
intoxications occur when toxins produced by pathogens are ingested.
Subsequent processing of food may destroy the microorganisms but not the toxin.

3. Chemical Hazards
A chemical hazard is any chemical contaminant introduced in food system which may cause
illness or injury to the individuals using the product. Chemical hazards includes pesticides
and residues, veterinary residues, colours, cleaning chemicals, adulterants etc. Chemicals
which cause a harmful response when consumed by animals or humans are said to be toxic.
The factors which determine the toxicity are the dosage or the amount of exposure and
potency of the chemical.Chemical hazards can be divided into three categories:
➢ Those coming from natural sources, including the food itself. Naturally occurring
toxicants are found in plants, microorganisms, and animals.
➢ Those, which become food contaminants because of the way in which foods are grown,
produced, processed, stored, or prepared. Toxic environmental contaminants like lead
products from cooking are examples of unintended toxicants in foods.
➢ Those that are intentionally added to foods for some desirable function. This may be a
food additive, which acts as a preservative, or it may be a pesticide, which is used to
reduce insect, or mold damage or it may be a drug, which is used to treat disease in
food-producing animals.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
Complex and multiple operations in a food system increase the chances of contamination. By
the time the food reaches consumer, it has several opportunities to become contaminated.
Multiple foods handling from food grower to processor to supplier to finally us multiplies the
chances of food contamination.
a) Firstly, the food could have been contaminated at the source - food grower, food processor,
food packaging – through poor control methods or mishandling.
b) Most if not all food products go through additional steps of warehousing and storage,
distribution and retail thus adding to another ladder for food to become contaminated.
c) Finally, the food reaches the final food processing facility or our homes, and it is here that
they need to protect it from the point of receiving, through storage to its preparation for its
intended use and upto consumption by us.
Each of these steps offers opportunities for contamination if they are performed improperly.
Controls at each of these steps need to be built into ensure that the food is safe right upto the
time it is consumed by the people.

Primary Production: Agricultural products and animals have a wide range of microbes on
them or in them at the time of harvest or slaughter. The number and types of microbes that
comprise the primary contamination of the food varies from one commodity to another, with
geographic regions and with the methods employed for harvesting/slaughtering. Care with
procedures may limit and reduce the contamination with food safety hazards.

Purchase: Purchasing safe food is an important step in keeping it safe. Purchase from
reputable approved suppliers, proper checking during receiving and accepting which gives an
assurance that what is received is what had been ordered. Receiving inspection should
include inspecting the product for its packaging, if any, appearance of the product – should be
characteristic of the product, not rotten, spoilt or damaged, physical and chemical properties
for quality and safety, and receiving temperature in case of perishable and frozen supplies.

Storage: Until the food is not going to be processed it must be handled and stored safely.
Storage is where many breakdowns in hygienic conditions occur. Storage of freshly harvested
paddy provides conducive conditions for proliferation of micro-organisms some of which
may be pathogenic or toxin producing, storage of raw products above processed food
products specially those requiring no further processing within the same storage facility,
overcrowding deep freezer with various raw meats increases the risk of cross-contamination
and multiplication of disease causing micro-organisms already present in the meat, are
examples of faulty storage. Planning ahead for storage space and usage help protect foods.

Production (Preparation and Packaging): Food safety hazards in food are normally
controlled by exclusion or removal, inhibition of growth or by destruction. The process to be
employed depends on the sensitivity and the type of the hazards to be controlled and the food
itself. Microbes in particular need water, nutrients and appropriate conditions of temperature
and pH in order to multiply. Production/processing under unhygienic conditions may lead to
not only contamination of the food, while processing failures lead to survival of such
microbes, their toxins and coupled with time and temperature abuse pathogenic bacteria and
moulds are allowed to multiply and proliferate. Processing and preparation procedures must
be controlled to ensure that: a) Food is not held in the temperature danger zone longer than is
necessary, during and even after preparation; b) Food handlers do not harbor diseases or
expose food to contamination through careless and negligent personal habits; and c) Food is
not contaminated by unclean utensils or equipment or by contact with raw food.

Distribution and Delivery: Food may become contaminated, or may not reach its
destination in a suitable condition for consumption, on account of inadvertent variations in
conditions of temperature, moisture content (water activity) and integrity of the packaged
product due to inappropriate handling, damaging and resulting ingress of moisture and
temperatures for storage and transportation. Frozen products like ice creams and frozen peas
undergoing a break in the cold chain are bound to deteriorate and pose potential food safety
threat. Food products need to be protected from contamination and damage during storage,
transportation and delivery. Effective control measures as appropriate to the food being
transported are required to be taken during transport and delivery, even where adequate
hygiene control measures have been taken earlier in the food chain.

Service: If the food has been processed through all the above stages without being
contaminated thus rendering it safe for consumption. However, there is still another step of
service in case of a restaurant / hotel / hostel / hospital / in flight etc. which provides one
more opportunity for safe food to become unsafe at the very final step of consumption.
Unhygienic practices like handling the clean spoons and plates after having wiped a dirty
table or counter top, wiping hands with the aprons prior to serving of food, or even permitting
un-well operators to handle and serve food. We need to have hygienic procedures while
serving of food, because else it is meaningless to implement hygienic procedures in all the
preceding steps only to expose them to food safety hazards during food service.

FOOD LAWS

Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954: Fresh, pure and nutritious food is most
important for the health as it prevents malnutrition and reduces the risk of various diseases
like diabetes, cancer, stroke etc. But most of food gets adulterated to make more profit and to
increase its quantity while reducing its quality by the addition of inferior substances replacing
the valuable ones such as addition of brick powder and artificial color (Sudan red) to the red
chili powder, Metanil yellow used for coloring dal and turmeric etc. which leads to terrible
health problems. To prohibit this Government introduce PFA (Prevention of Food
Adulteration) Bill in the Parliament which defines various food standards and guidelines to
regulate the manufacture, distribution, storage and import of the food products and make
provisions for prevention of food adulteration/ contamination, enrichment of flour, bread with
vitamins and minerals, addition of vitamin “C” in certain foods, and iodization of salt.

Fruit Products Order (FPO), 1955: Manufacturing of fresh produce on large scale without
following proper hygienic and sanitation procedures will increases the chances of
contamination as it involves number of processing steps (peeling, slicing, chopping, coring or
trimming) in which plant fluids are released and it acts as a nutritive medium for the growth
of pathogens. Use of contaminated water for the washing or chilling purpose also spread
contamination in a large volume and excess amount of preservatives are used to enhance the
shelflife which are harmful for health. To establish standards for fresh produce processors,
Essential Commodities Act revised Fruit Product Order in 1955 to set the quality control
guidelines which are compulsory for all manufacturers to keep hygienic condition during
manufacturing process for the production of safe and good quality of products. The quality
guidelines include Personnel hygiene, sanitary conditions of premises, Portability of water,
Quality control facility, Product standards and Limits for preservatives, additives etc. The
FPO mark is a mandatory mark for all fruit business operators.

Meat Food Products Order (MFPO), 1973: Meat is a rich source of protein, zinc, iron and
vitamin B12 which is widely consumed as a part of balanced diet but due to the emerging risk
of communicable diseases that transfers to human through meat, consumers demand products
that are processed in sanitary environment without the risk of contamination. For this
purpose, Ministry of Food Processing implements Meat Food Products Order (MFPO), 1973
to manage the processing of meat products including fish and poultry products and it aims to
keep cleanliness in slaughterhouses, antemortem and postmortem examination, inprocess
inspection and end product testing.

Vegetable Oil Products Order (Control), 1947: With growing population the consumption
rate of vegetable oil is increased rapidly. Most of oil varieties including soy oil, palm oil and
sunflower oil are imported from Malaysia, Indonesia and South America. It properly
regulates the processing of oil products through Directorate of Vanaspati, Vegetable oils and
Fats, Department of Food and Public Distribution.
Edible Oil Packaging (Regulation) Order 1998:For oil packaging different types of
packaging material is used to extend its shelf life. It provides moisture and oxygen barrier and
prevents rancidity. Specified minimum requirements were formed related the use of
packaging material to ensure consumer protection. To maintain the quality of packaged oil
Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order has been introduced by government in 1998 under
Essential commodities act, 1955. It makes the edibles oils packing at predetermined prices
and sold in retail.

The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967: To
satisfy the demand of growing population large amount of oil cakes (castor, peanut,
sunflower, cottonseed, linseed) are processed. Extraction of oil from oil-bearing substances
includes the use of solvents like hexane to achieve highest oil yield. So, Solvent Extracted
Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967 set quality standards to provide
consumer protection by inhibit the use of oil without get refined. It also defines standards for
the use of solvent (hexane) during the oil extraction process and regulates the manufacturing
and transportation of solvent extracted oils etc.

Milk and Milk Products Order (MMPO), 1992: After being collected from the dairy farms
milk is processed within the few hours under the hygienic conditions to maintain its quality.
So, various quality control parameters were established by department of Animal Husbandry
and Dairying (GOI) under MMPO, 1992 sec. 3 of the Essential commodities act, 1955 to
provide safest quality products. Its aim is to enhance the quality of milk by maintaining
hygienic conditions throughout the processing. Various changes were done in milk and milk
products order, 1992 to increase the growth rate of dairy sector faster.

SANITATION IN FOOD SERVICE ESTABLISHMENTS

Sanitary practices and hygienic conditions are important because food is being processed,
prepared and sold in large volumes than before. Sanitation can reduce contamination of food
by microorganisms which are a major cause of food borne illnesses. Further, sanitary
principles also apply to waste disposal and can help reduce pollution and improve ecological
balance in and around the food service unit. Sanitation is a dynamic and ongoing function and
cannot be sporadic or something that can be turned on once a day, once a week, etc.
Equipment, employees, air and water, insects and rodents, sewage all are potential sources of
contamination. Therefore, healthy sanitary practices, appropriate cleaning programme and
pest management system must be developed and implemented within the food service
establishments to prevent microbial contamination and ensure safe food. By cleaning we
mean, free from dirt, stain, or impurities, unsoiled. The cleaning process, therefore, primarily
removes the soil deposits. Sanitizing, on the other hand, destroys microbes that are left on the
cleaned surfaces. Various cleaning agents, sanitizers, disinfectants are available and approved
for use in food service units.

Cleaning Agents
Food particles and other debris provide good nutrients for the microorganisms to grow. In
fact, the food particles protect microorganisms during cleaning. Hence, it is essential to clean
food debris before applying sanitizers. Depending upon the type of soil (food debris), water
supply, use for specific purposes, area and kind of equipment to be cleaned, various kinds of
cleaning compounds are used. Good cleaning compounds are economical, easy to measure
and dissolve well. They are approved for use on food surfaces, are not corrosive and do not
cake, leave dust, or break during storage. They are classified based on their chemical
properties i.e. alkaline cleaning compounds and acid cleaning compounds.

Classification of cleaning agents

A) Cleaning substances of natural origin: Bengal gram powder or besan is a natural cleaning
powder that has been used in India, since times immemorial. It has been traditionally used to
remove oily adherences of cooking utensils.

B) Alkaline cleaning compounds: Carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides of various metals are

called alkaline compounds. Alkaline cleaning compounds have a pH between 7 and 14.
➢ Strong alkaline cleaners: Cleaning compounds which have a pH near 14 are called strong
alkaline cleaners, e.g. sodium hydroxide, which destroys microbes and emulsifies the soil.
These are used specially in commercial ovens and smokehouses. These cleaners have
strong dissolving powers and are very corrosive. If these come in contact with skin, they
can lead to burns, ulcers and scarring. In fact, a prolonged contact may cause permanent
damage. Inhaling its fumes or mist can cause lung damage.
➢ Heavy-duty alkaline cleaners: These have moderate dissolving powers and are either
slightly corrosive or not corrosive at all. These are often used for cleaning in-place or high
pressure or other mechanized systems. They are very good at removing fats but do not
remove mineral deposits. Example: sodium carbonate.
 ➢ Mild alkaline cleaners: These are used to clean lightly soiled areas by hand. These
compounds are good at softening water but do not remove mineral deposits. Sodium
bicarbonate is an example of a mild alkaline cleaner.

C) Acid cleaning compounds: Acid-based cleaners like phosphoric acid and hydrofluoric acid
are commonly used. They are especially good at removing mineral deposits on metal surfaces.
The acid cleaners dissolve the minerals in the deposits so that they can be easily removed.
➢ Strongly acid cleaners: The strongly acid cleaners corrode concrete, most metals and fabrics.
Further, if heated, it produces corrosive and toxic gases, which can damage the lungs.
However, they are very effective cleaning agents. They remove encrusted surface matter and
mineral scale from stem equipment, boilers and some food-processing equipment. Example:
phosphoric acid and Hydrofluoric acid.
➢ Mildly acid cleaners: Mildly acid cleaners are slightly corrosive and may cause sensitive
reactions. A few examples are hydroxyacetic, acetic and gluconic acid.

D) Soaps and detergents: Soaps and detergents emulsify fats, oils and grease so that they are
easily washed away. Soap is an oldest and best cleaning compound used but it forms an
insoluble curd with hard water, hence not preferred. Instead, detergents are used.
A detergent is a substance which assists in cleaning when added to water. These are normally
sodium salts of fatty acids. To be effective, a detergent must have a good wetting capacity and
the ability to remove soil from surfaces and carry away residues. Soaps and detergents for
household cleaning have a pH of 8.0 to 9.5.

E) Solvent cleaners: Solvent cleaners are based on ether or alcohol and work well on soils
caused by lubricating oils and greases. They may be mixed with wetting agents, water
softeners and other additives. They are:
Sequestrants: which chelate metals like magnesium and calcium and prevent their interaction
with food components or utensils. It actually is a chemical added to cleaning compounds to
prevent the salts of calcium and magnesium in hard water from forming deposits on
equipment surfaces.
Surfactants: which are complex molecules that blend with a cleaning compound to reduce the
bond energy around the soil and allow closer contact between the soil and the cleaning
compound.
DISINFECTANTS OR SANITIZERS
A disinfectant is a chemical substance which is capable of killing microorganisms. A
disinfectant is also referred to as sanitizer, signifying the properties of their activity in
maintaining sanitary conditions.

The disinfecting agents used generally in the food industry include:

A) Chemicals, such as
• Chlorine releasing compounds
• Iodophors/Iodine compounds
• Quarternary Ammonium Compounds (QUATS)

B) Amphoteric compounds
C) Heat
D) Radiation

A) Chemicals
Food processing and food service operations use various chemical sanitizers for different
areas and types of equipment.
a) Chlorine-releasing compounds: Of all the chlorine - releasing compounds, hypochlorites
have been the choice disinfectants used in food industry. The hypochlorites are powerful
disinfectants with a wide range of anti-bacterial activity including bacterial spores The
diluted solutions of sodium hypochlorite are used widely but they should be used very
carefully as they are corrosive and are skin irritants.

b) Iodophors: In these disinfectants, iodine is incorporated along with a detergent. They are
not as effective as hypochlorites against bacterial spore. Iodophors, are generally used in the
dairy industry due to their bactericidal capacity. However it is expensive than chlorine.

c) Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QUATS): These compounds are ammonium salts and
are quite expensive and less effective when compared to hypochlorites and iodophors. The
solutions of these compounds have the tendency to stick to the surfaces and require thorough
cleaning. They do not kill bacterial spores, rather they inhibit their growth.
B) Amphoteric compounds
Amphoteric compounds are essentially alkyl or acyl amino acids. They combine detergent
and disinfectant properties. They are generally very expensive than other disinfectants.

C) Heat
The efficiency of heat, as a sanitizer, depends on the humidity, temperature required and the
length of time it takes to destroy microbes at that temperature. The most common types of
heat used for sanitization are steam and hot water. The sterilization of an item depends on the
time-temperature relationship. This means that if equipments are sterilized at a lower
temperature, they must be kept at heat temperature for longer duration while if they are
sterilized for a shorter duration, the temperatures must be higher. Examples of time-
temperature combinations are 15 minutes of heat at 85°C or 20 minutes at 82°C.

D) Radiation
Radiation as ultraviolet light or energy cathode or gamma rays destroys microorganisms.
However, it is not entirely effective in food processing and food service facilities for the
following reasons:
• Some bacteria are more resistant to radiation and need a longer exposure for destruction
• Rays kills only the microorganisms that are very close by
• Dust, grease and opaque or cloudy solutions absorb radiation and prevent it from killing
microbes.

WASTE DISPOSAL
An adequate and hygienic waste disposal system is a necessity for any food service
establishment. Well, the waste materials from food establishment include food scraps,
vegetable peels, empty covers and other liquid wastes which cannot be washed down through
the sewage lines. All such wastes should be collected in waste bins specially kept for
collection. They should be first collected in plastic bags before putting them in the waste bins
with lids. The solid wet wastes should be collected in the polythene covers and sealed before
disposal.
In the kitchen, the wastes generated due to continuous operations of food preparation should
be immediately collected into foot-operated suitable waste bins which have tight-fitting lids.
They must not be allowed to accumulate except where it is unavoidable. They should be
frequently transferred to the big waste bins kept outside the food preparation area and cleaned
each time with disinfectants.
All waste bins should be set up in a corner outside the kitchen over a raised platform or
stands specially made for placing the bins which should be easily removable. They should be
closable and maintained in a sound condition. They must have tight lids to avoid the pollution
of surrounding areas. The area around the waste bins should be always kept clean and
nuisance-free by using disinfectants. There should be a tap point in this area for ready
cleaning operations. Good control and management of refuse and refuse areas can also
prevent odour nuisances occurring and avoid pest and insect infestations.

PESTS AND RODENT CONTROL

In any food establishment, varieties of insects, pests and rodents pose a big threat to the
maintenance of hygienic surroundings. They contaminate food with hair, fur, droppings, eggs
and dead bodies, as you have already learnt earlier. They can also cause considerable damage
to food stocks and premises. The common pests found in food processing and food service
establishments include two groups of insects, the flies and cockroaches, which are the
important carriers of food borne diseases. Flies feed indiscriminately on waste matter, animal
wastes and on food from kitchens.
Preventive and control measures
Preventive measures are ideal. It should be ensured that no food scraps are left lying out. No
dirt or rubbish is allowed to accumulate. All holes, gaps, drains and air ducts should be
covered with thick wire mesh or grating.
Drying the raw materials like grains, adequately preserving commodities at low temperature
are ideal.
Regular checkups must be made to ensure that the premises are free from pests. The persons
responsible for pest control should:
• inspect all internal and external areas of food premises
• revisit if there are signs of infestation
• ensure that insects are properly identified to carry out effective treatment, and
• maintain the records of chemicals, pest problems, indications of infestation.

4D’s Approach for controlling rodents

4D’s refers to - i) Deny entry; ii) Deny food; iii) Deny shelter; and iv) Destruction