Energy and Metabolism

Focus on the Basic Metabolic

Processes, Sources of Energy, and
Vitamins and Minerals
 Review
• All Excitable tissues are Active. All active
tissues require energy to properly function.
• Metabolic oxidation (NADH and FADH) is
always coupled by reduction through:
– reduction of Vitamin B1 and Vitamin B2
 Systems and Fuels
• Energy is stored in bonds between phosphoric acid
residues and certain organic compounds
– Phosphates are classified either:
• high-energy phosphate compounds: e.g., adenosine triphosphate
(ATP), thioesters (Coenzyme A/ CoA  HS-CoA + acetic acid =
Acetyl-CoA)
– Energy 10–12 kcal/mol are released when the bond is hydrolyzed
• low-energy phosphate compounds: e.g., glucose 6-phosphate
– liberate 2–3 kcal/mol upon hydrolysis
– Main source of energy: ATP (primarily from OXIDATION)
• ATP produced primarily by combustion of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins:
– Mitochondria (ATP synthetase) = 95% of ATP, through oxidative
phosphorylation
– Cytoplasm (Glycolysis) = Through energy released from Pyruvic acid
formation, ADP is converted to ATP: Less than 5% of energy is released
» Called Substrate-level phosphorylation
Energy Systems and Fuels
Energy Systems and Fuels
 SOURCE ATP YIELD PER GLUCOSE MOLECULE
(PROCESS)
GLYCOLYSIS
Oxidation of one glucose molecule to two 2 ATPs (substrate-level phosphorylation)
pyruvic acid molecules
Production of 2 NADH + H+ 4 or 6 ATPs (oxidative phosphorylation in
electron transport chain)
FORMATION OF TWO MOLECULES OF ACETYL COENZYME A
2 NADH + 2 H 6 ATPs (oxidative phosphorylation in electron
transport chain)
KREBS CYCLE AND ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
Oxidation of succinyl CoA to succinic acid 2 GTPs that are converted to 2 ATPs (substrate-
level phosphorylation)
GTP can donate a phosphate group to ADP to
form ATP (Guanosine Triphosphate)
Production of 6 NADH + 6 H+ 18 ATPs (oxidative phosphorylation in electron
transport chain)
Production of 2 FADH2 4 ATPs (oxidative phosphorylation in electron
transport chain)
Total 36 or 38 ATPs per glucose molecule
(theoretical maximum)
 Energy Systems and Fuels
• Simplification of food types through digestion made
possible by HYDROLYSIS
• Energy is released by catabolic reactions
– Kreb’s cycle (aka Citric acid cycle)
• In Mitochondria
• Aerobic = ATP changed into ADP and phosphoric acid (radical)
(primarily, OXIDATION)
– By-products: hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide (Hydrogen combines
with O2 to form H2O)
– Glycolysis
• In Cytoplasm
• Aerobic = glucose converted to pyruvic acid (Glycolysis)
(OXIDATION)
• Anaerobic = glucose converted lactic acid
 Energy Systems and Fuels
• Energy sources are:
– Anaerobic: Phosphagens
– Both aerobic and anaerobic: Glucose
– Aerobic:
• “The pyruvic acid derived from carbohydrates, fatty acids from lipids,
and amino acids from proteins is eventually converted into the
compound acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) in the matrix of mitochondria”
• Fats
• Proteins
– ATP is a NUCLEOTIDE, composed of
» the nitrogenous base adenine
» the pentose sugar ribose, and
» three phosphate radicals = last two radicals are the high-energy
phosphate bonds
• Contains 12,000 calories of energy per mole of ATP
Energy Systems and Fuels
 Energy Systems and Fuels

Hepatocytes and adipose cells carry out lipogenesis, beta oxidation, and lipolysis;
hepatocytes carry out ketogenesis
 Neuroclinical Relevance: Ketosis
• The formation of three substances collectively
known as ketone bodies secondary to normal
fatty acid catabolism, is called ketogenesis:
– acetoacetic acid
– beta-hydroxybutyric acid
– Acetone
• Normally very low because other tissues use
them for ATP production as fast as they are
generated from the breakdown of fatty acids
in the liver
 Neuroclinical Relevance: Ketosis
• Increase, called ketosis, may be secondary to:
– after a meal rich in triglycerides
– during fasting or starvation (because few carbohydrates are available
for catabolism)
– poorly controlled or untreated diabetes mellitus for two reasons:
• Because adequate glucose cannot get into cells, triglycerides are used for ATP
production
• Because insulin normally inhibits lipolysis, a lack of insulin accelerates the pace
of lipolysis
• Extreme or prolonged ketosis can lead to acidosis (ketoacidosis), an
abnormally low blood pH
– causes depression of the central nervous system, which can result in
disorientation, coma, and even death if the condition is not treated
• When a diabetic becomes seriously insulin-deficient, one of the tell-
tale signs is the sweet smell on the breath from the ketone body
acetone
Before an amino acid can enter the
Krebs cycle, an amino group
must be removed, which is
accomplished through via
deamination.
Energy Systems and Fuels
Energy Systems and Fuels
 Energy Systems and Fuels
• Use of ATP: Energy from ATP is used to promote three
major categories of cellular functions
– transport of substances through multiple membranes in the cell
– synthesis of chemical compounds throughout the cell
– mechanical work
• Analysis: where ATP is used specifically?
– About 27% of the ATP is used for protein synthesis
– About 24% is used by Na, K ATPase
– 9% by gluconeogenesis
– 6% by Ca2+ ATPase
– 5% by myosin ATPase
– 3% by ureagenesis
 Energy Systems and Fuels
• Carbohydrates
– Preferred for anaerobic
Fuel Source Calories exercise
Carbohydrates 4 – Preferred for high
Fats 9 intensity aerobic
Protein 4 exercise
• Fats
– Preferred for lower
intensity exercise
• Proteins
– Seldom used: CACHEXIA
 Relative Efficiency of Energy Sources
and Systems
System Moles of ATP/ min Time
Phosphagen 4 Phosphagen 8-10 seconds
system system
Glycogen–lactic 2.5 Glycogen–lactic 1.3 – 1.6 minutes
acid system acid system
Aerobic system 1 Aerobic system Unlimited time
(as long as
nutrients last)

The two tables imply that eating a high carbohydrate food added with aerobic
training is generally the best for endurance athletes. Power is relying on
Phosphagen system and endurance on Aerobic system.
 Relative Efficiency of Energy Sources
and Systems

Simplifying the two tables, a high-carbohydrate diet ensures longer time prior to
exhaustion, and faster time for recovery of the bodies glycogen content
Energy Transfer
Energy Expenditure
• 70 kg man
– Lying in bed all day =
1650 Calories of energy
– Sitting all day = 2000 to
2250 Calories
– Thus, dietary
requirement is only 2000
calories per day for a
very sedentary man
Energy Expenditure
 Metabolism
• Metabolism – refers to all of the chemical
reactions that occur in the body
– The basis of the living state of an organism
– Anabolism – “building reactions”
• combine simple molecules and monomers to form the
body’s complex structural and functional components
• Endergonic: consume more energy than they produce
• E.g. formation of peptide bonds, building of fatty acids
into phospholipids, linkage of glucose monomers to
form glycogen (Glycogenesis)
 Metabolism
• Metabolism –
– Catabolism – “breakdown reactions”
• Chemical reactions that break down complex organic
molecules into simpler ones
• Overall, catabolic (decomposition) reactions are
exergonic
– Produce more energy than they consume, releasing the
chemical energy stored in organic molecules
– E.g. Gluconeogenesis (triglycerides and proteins are
converted to glucose) Glycogenolysis (Glycogen is converted
to Glucose), Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron
transport chain
 Metabolism

Gluconeogenesis can be carried out by the

Glycogenesis, besides the liver, can be hepatocytes
performed by the muscles  but the latter
can’t remove the phosphates
Metabolism
 Metabolism
• Metabolism (cont)
– A molecule synthesized in an anabolic reaction has
a limited lifetime.
– With few exceptions, it will eventually be broken
down and its component atoms recycled into
other molecules or excreted from the body.
– Individual cells may be refurbished molecule by
molecule, or a whole tissue may be rebuilt cell by
cell.
 Metabolism
• Factors affecting metabolism
– Thyroid Hormone = increase
– Male Sex Hormone = increase
– Growth Hormone = increase
– Fever = increase
– Sleep = decrease
– Malnutrition = decrease
 Principal Metabolic Pathway in the
Absorptive State – Primarily Anabolic
Principal Metabolic Pathway in the
Post-Absorptive State – Primarily
Catabolic
 Nourishment – The Role of Vitamins
and Minerals
• Minerals: inorganic elements that occur naturally in the Earth’s
crust
– Inorganic means that the Carbon-Hydrogen complex is ABSENT
– Minerals constitute about 4% of total body mass and are concentrated
most heavily in the skeleton
– Minerals with known functions in the body include calcium,
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chloride, magnesium, iron,
iodide, manganese, copper, cobalt, zinc, fluoride, selenium, and
chromium
– The body generally uses the ions of the minerals rather than the non-
ionized form
– Other minerals—aluminum, boron, silicon, and molybdenum— are
present but their functions are unclear
– Typical diets supply adequate amounts of potassium, sodium, chloride,
and magnesium
– Some attention must be paid to eating foods that provide enough
calcium, phosphorus, iron, and iodide
– Excess amounts of most minerals are excreted in the urine and feces
 Nourishment – The Role of Vitamins
and Minerals
• Minerals: (cont)
– Because minerals do not form long-chain compounds, they
are otherwise poor building materials
– Major role of minerals is to help regulate enzymatic
reactions
• Calcium and phosphorus form part of the matrix of bone (Calcium
phosphate)
• Calcium, iron, magnesium, and manganese are constituents of
some coenzymes
– Magnesium also serves as a catalyst for the conversion of ADP to ATP
• Minerals such as sodium and phosphorus work in buffer systems,
which help control the pH of body fluids
• Sodium also helps regulate the osmosis of water
• Along with other ions, Sodium is involved in the generation of
nerve impulses
 Nourishment – The Role of Vitamins
and Minerals
• Vitamins:
– Organic nutrients required in small amounts to maintain
growth and normal metabolism
– Do not provide energy or serve as the body’s building
materials
– Most vitamins with known functions are coenzymes
– How to get vitamins:
• Most vitamins cannot be synthesized by the body and must be
ingested in food
• Other vitamins, such as vitamin K, are produced by bacteria in the
GI tract and then absorbed
• The body can assemble some vitamins if the raw materials, called
provitamins, are provided
– Vitamin A from Beta-carotene
 Nourishment – The Role of Vitamins
and Minerals
• Vitamins: (cont)
– Two main groups:
• Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
– absorbed along with other dietary lipids in the small intestine and
packaged into chylomicrons (a type of lipoprotein, together with
VLDL, LDL, and HDL)
– may be stored in cells, particularly hepatocytes
– Hypervitaminosis: excessive consumption may cause problems.
» excess intake of vitamin A can cause: drowsiness, general
weakness, irritability, headache, vomiting, dry and peeling
skin, partial hair loss, joint pain, liver and spleen
enlargement, coma, and even death
» excessive intake of vitamin D may result in: loss of appetite,
nausea, vomiting, excessive thirst, general weakness,
irritability, hypertension, and kidney damage and
malfunction
 Nourishment – The Role of Vitamins
and Minerals
• Vitamins: (cont)
– Two main groups:
• Water-soluble: the rest
– dissolved in body fluids
– Excess quantities of these vitamins are not stored but instead are
excreted in the urine
– C, E, and betacarotene (a provitamin)—are termed antioxidant
vitamins because they inactivate oxygen free radicals
» Antioxidant vitamins are thought to play a role in protecting
against some kinds of cancer, reducing the buildup of
atherosclerotic plaque, delayingsome effects of aging, and
decreasing the chance of cataract formation in the lens of
the eyes
– Few water-soluble vitamins may cause any problems related to
hypervitaminosis
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS
Calcium Most abundant mineral in body. Appears in
combination with phosphates. About 99%
is stored in bone and teeth. Blood Ca2 level
is controlled by parathyroid hormone
(PTH). Calcitriol promotes absorption of
dietary calcium. Excess is excreted in feces
and urine. Sources are milk, egg yolk,
shellfish, and leafy green vegetables.
Phosphorus About 80% is found in bones and teeth as
phosphate salts. Blood phosphate level is
controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Excess is excreted in urine; small amount is
eliminated in feces. Sources are dairy
products, meat, fish, poultry, and nuts.
Potassium Major cation (K) in intracellular fluid.
Excess excreted in urine. Present in most
foods (meats, fish, poultry, fruits, and
nuts).
IMPORTANCE
Formation of bones and teeth, blood
clotting, normal muscle and nerve
activity, endocytosis and exocytosis,
cellular motility, chromosome
movement during cell division, glycogen
metabolism, and release of
neurotransmitters and hormones.
Formation of bones and teeth.
Phosphates (H2PO4-
, HPO4-, and PO4- - -) constitute a major
buffer system of blood. Plays important
role in muscle contraction and nerve
activity. Component of many enzymes.
Involved in energy transfer (ATP).
Component of DNA and RNA.
Needed for generation and conduction
of action potentials in neurons and
muscle fibers.
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS
Sulfur Component of many proteins
(such as insulin and
chrondroitin sulfate),
electron carriers in electron
transport chain, and some
vitamins (thiamine and
biotin). excreted in urine.
Sources include beef, liver,
lamb, fish, poultry, eggs,
cheese, and beans.
Sodium Most abundant cation (Na) in
extracellular fluids; some
found in bones. Excreted in
urine and perspiration.
Normal intake of NaCl (table
salt) supplies more than the
required amounts.
IMPORTANCE
As component of hormones
and vitamins, regulates
various body activities.
Needed for ATP production
by electron transport chain.
Strongly affects distribution
of water through osmosis.
Part of bicarbonate buffer
system. Functions in nerve
and muscle action potential
conduction.
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS IMPORTANCE
Chloride Major anion (Cl) in Plays role in acid–base
extracellular fluid. Excess balance of blood, water
excreted in urine. Sources balance, and formation of
HCl in stomach.
include table salt (NaCl),
soy sauce, and processed
foods.
Magnesium Important cation (Mg2) in Required for normal
intracellular fluid. functioning of muscle and
Excreted in urine and nervous tissue. Participates
in bone formation.
feces. Widespread in
Constituent of many
various foods, such as coenzymes.
green leafy vegetables,
seafood, and whole-grain
cereals.
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS
Iron About 66% found in hemoglobin of
blood. Normal losses of iron occur by
shedding of hair, epithelial cells, and
mucosal cells, and in sweat, urine, feces,
bile, and blood lost during
menstruation. Sources are meat, liver,
shellfish, egg yolk, beans, legumes, dried
fruits, nuts, and cereals.
Iodide Essential component of thyroid
hormones. Excreted in urine.
Sources are seafood, iodized salt, and
vegetables grown in
iodine-rich soils.
IMPORTANCE
As component of hemoglobin,
reversibly binds O2.
Component of cytochromes
involved in electron transport
chain.
Required by thyroid gland to
synthesize thyroid hormones,
which regulate metabolic rate.
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS
Manganese Some stored in liver and spleen. Most
excreted in feces.
Copper Some stored in liver and spleen. Most
excreted in feces. Required with iron
for synthesis of hemoglobin.
Component of coenzymes in electron
transport chain and enzyme necessary
for melanin formation.
Cobalt Constituent of vitamin B12.
IMPORTANCE
Activates several enzymes. Needed for
hemoglobin synthesis, urea formation,
growth, reproduction, lactation, bone
formation, and possibly production and
release of insulin, and inhibition of cell
damage.
Sources include eggs, whole-wheat
flour, beans, beets, liver, fish, spinach,
and asparagus.
As part of vitamin B12, required for
erythropoiesis.
 Minerals

MINERAL COMMENTS IMPORTANCE

Zinc Important component of As a component of carbonic anhydrase,
certain enzymes. important in carbon dioxide metabolism.
Widespread in many Necessary for normal growth and wound
healing, normal taste sensations and
foods, especially meats.
appetite, and normal sperm counts in
males. As a component of peptidases, it is
involved in protein digestion.
Fluoride Components of bones, teeth, Appears to improve tooth structure
other tissues. and inhibit tooth decay.
 Minerals
MINERAL COMMENTS
Selenium Important component of
certain enzymes. Found in
seafood, meat, chicken,
tomatoes, egg yolk, milk,
mushrooms, and garlic, and
cereal grains grown in
selenium-rich soil.
Chromium Found in high concentrations
in brewer’s yeast. Also found
in wine and some brands of
beer.
IMPORTANCE
Needed for synthesis of thyroid hormones,
sperm motility, and proper functioning of the
immune system. Also functions as an
antioxidant. Prevents chromosome breakage
and may play a role in preventing certain birth
defects, miscarriage, prostate cancer, and
coronary artery disease.
Appears to improve tooth structure and
inhibit tooth decay. Needed for normal
activity of insulin in carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism.
• http://www.diabetes.co.uk/body/insulin.html
• http://www.caninsulin.com/Glucose-
metabolism.asp
• https://www.nap.edu/read/9620/chapter/12