CAE 320: DESIGN OF CONCRETE STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION

CONCRETE: In its basic form concrete is a composite material

made from portland cement, aggregates (usually coarse and
fine), and water.

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE:
Controlled by composition & manufacture:
 cement type (chemical composition)
 water quality
 aggregate quality (approx. 75% of volume)
 admixtures
 production (type, cure, ….)

CONCRETE is characterized by LOW tensile strength (hence the

need for reinforcing)
 INTRODUCTION (cont’d)

REINFORCED CONCRETE (R/C) A COMPOSITE

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
The combination of portland cement concrete and an
embedded ductile armature (usually ductile steel) to
achieve:
 Structural (load carrying) performance
 Low cost (relatively ~ $100 per cubic yard as ready mix)
 Weather resistance
 Fire resistance
 Useful compressive strength
 Useful tensile strength
 Structural ductility
 Durability
 Structural integrity
 INTRODUCTION (cont’d)

Other Forms of REINFORCED CONCRETE

 Conventional (R/C using ductile steel re-bar)

 Pre-Stressed (P/C using high strength strand)
 High crack resistance
 High strength
 Relatively light weight (smaller sections)
 Mass produced
 Standardization
 Generally modest labor requirements
 Higher cost
 Connection difficulties
 Post-Tensioned
 INTRODUCTION (cont’d)

Other Forms of REINFORCED CONCRETE cont’d

 Fiber–reinforced concrete
 Improved (reliable) tensile strength
 Improved toughness
 Improved crack resistance
 Improved fatigue resistance

 Ferro-cement (Older terminology for thin sheet

materials using layered fabric reinforcement)
 Improved flexibility
 Thin sheet material
 INTRODUCTION (cont’d)

Production Methods of REINFORCED CONCRETE

 Cast in place
 Forming (wood, reinforced plastics, steel, …)
 Cast on ground (prepared base)
 Slip formed
 Shotcrete

 Pre-Cast
 On site (structural elements, tilt-up, lift slab)
 Factory
 INTRODUCTION (cont’d)

Primary Structural Shapes

 One dimensional
 Beams (single reinf., double reinf., T-type)
 Columns
 One way slabs

 Two dimensional
 Slabs
 Arch
 Sandwich panel
 Wall

 Three dimensional
 Shell
 Mass concrete
 MATERIALS: I. CEMENT

PRINCIPAL BINDER: PORTLAND CEMENT (PC) is a fine grind powder

that can chemically combine with water (by hydration) to form a
durable material that has adhesive and cohesive bonding
properties for use as a binder in composite concrete (PCC).

PC COMPOSITION and MANUFACTURE

Fuse Calcerous and Agrillaceous Materials
 Limestone + silica + … (trace) materials + 2700ºF  CLINKER
 Clinker + Gypsum + Fine Grinding  PORTLAND CEMENT
 Stable, if kept dry (anhydrous)

Principal Compounds (PC – Type I)

 Di-calcium Silicate (2CaO SiO2) - Abbreviated C2S ~27%
 Tri-calcium Silicate (3CaO SiO2) - Abbreviated C3S ~45%
 Tri-calcium Aluminate (3CaO Al2O3) - Abbrev. C3A ~11%
 Tetra-calcium Alumino-ferrite (4CaO Al2O3 Fe2O3)
Abbreviated C4AF ~8%
 MATERIALS: Cement (cont’d)

PC COMPOSITION and MANUFACTURE (cont’d)

 EFFECT OF WATER
 Portland Cement + H2O  HYDRATION (a chemical process)
 Hydrates  Early age gel  Later crystallization
 Reaction rate is a function of:
- relative proportion of compounds
- gel formation (water content, admixtures, …)
- surface area of cement
- temperature
 HARDENING PROCESS
 Initial Period (< 5 min)
C3A + Water  Rapid Hydration (Gypsum dissolves to retard
process and prevent flash set)
 Dormant Period (1 to 2 hours)
C3A Hydrates  Heat Evolves (Encourages more rapid set)
Rapid Set  Brittle Matrix  Lower Strength
 Long Term Hardening (Indefinite Period)
As long as H2O is available for hydration
Only after C3S reaction is complete (~ 7 days Type I)
C2S + H2O  Long Term Hardening (~ 7 to 28 days Type I)
 MATERIALS: Cement (cont’d)

PORTLAND CEMENT – Colloidal Theory of Hardening

 Fine Cement Particles Disperse in Water

 Hydration Forms Colloidal Gel by:
Inward decomposition + Outward expansion
 Water is consumed
PC particle centers may be starved thus stopping hydration
gel dries  end of hydration (unless water again reaches
unhydrated areas (particle centers) such as
through cracks
 Percent (%) of Compounds**

C3S C2S C3A C4AF REMARKS

I. Normal 45 27 11 8 80% passes
#325 sieve
II. Modified 44 31 7 13 some sulfate
& heat res.
III. High 53 19 10 7 95% passes
Early #325 sieve
IV. Low Heat 20 52 6 14 Min C3 S&
C3A, low str.
V. Sulfate 38 43 4 8 Low C3A
Resistant Low Strength

** Trace Elements Include:

Magnesia (MaO)
Sulphur Trioxide (SO3)
Alkalies: Ppotassium oxide (K2 O), Sodium oxide (NaO)
Carbon Dioxide
 MATERIALS: AGGREGATES (cont’d)

Approximately 75 % by volume of PCC is crushed stone

aggregate in the form of sand and gravel
 Generic Classification
 Natural
Igneous rock (from molten mass)  Hard, stable, durable
Metamorphic (by heat and pressure)  Hard, stable, durable
Sedimentary (by cemented grains)  Soft, porous
 Synthetic
Blast Furnace slag
Polystyrene beads
Glass

 Selection Terminology (ASTM Standard designations)

 Clean – Free of silt dust and organic matter
C117, C142, C123, C235, C227, …
 MATERIALS: AGGREGATES (cont’d)

 Selection Terminology (cont’d)

 Hard – Resistant to wear: C131

 Durable – Soundness, Freeze thaw and sodium sulfate
resistant: C88, C290
 Gradation – Sieve analysis: C136
Note: Fines increase surface area but they thus increase
cement demand, fines improve workability and fill larger void
areas.
 Fineness Modulus (FM): 2 (finer)< FM < 4 (coarser)
 Alkali Reactivity – First identified ~ 1940: C227
The highly alkaline solution attacks susceptible
aggregates to produce alkaline silica gel at disruptive
pressures resulting in excessive cracking and surface
deterioration of hardened concrete
Aggregate Gradation Analysis
WELL GRADED AGGREGATES IMPROVE
STRENGTH AND DURABILITY
 MATERIALS: AGGREGATES (cont’d)

Aggregate Perameters

 Specific gravity and Bulk specific gravity

 Unit weight
 Moisture condition
a) Oven dry – No moisture, reproducible condition
b) Air dry – No surface moisture, depends on ambient temp
and humidity
c) Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) – Voids water filled but surface
dry, a reproducible condition
d) Wet – Free surface water (Note free moisture is available
for hydration reaction)
e) Absorption Capacity
f) Free Moisture
 MATERIALS: AGGREGATES (cont’d)

Aggregate Handling and Storage

 Stockpile in layers of uniform thickness

 Do not allow free fall of dry fines in wind condition

 If using bins be sure they are clean and with no obstructions

 MATERIALS: III. WATER

 Use clean potable water.

 Use of brine or salt contaminated water will result in reduced of

concrete strength (10 to 15%) and severe deterioration of metals
if any are either embedded or attached.
 MATERIALS: IV. PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)

THE COMPOSITE:
 Fresh Mixed (plastic) Concrete
 Must be workable to:
 Fill the forms (fine details, corners, around reinforcement, …)
 Not segregate (de-water, excessive bleed,…)
 Readily mix, discharge, be handled,..
 Finish as required
 Workability is NOT measured by the SLUMP TEST (C143)
 Slump Test used to control batch to batch consistency
 Must be thoroughly mixed (to coat all filler particles
 Quality control starts with control of mix ingredients (at plant)
 Quality can be adversely affected at the jobsite (wait times, water
added, hot environments, cold environments, wind environments,…)
 Quality control monitored through test cylinders
 Trial batches or producer experience is used to design mixtures
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardening and Strengthening of Concrete

 Effect of temperature
Effect of Temperature on Strength
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Effect of cure moisture availability on strength

 Effect of Water / Cement Ratio (w/c)
on Strength
w/c= wt. water/wt. cement
(or w/c=#gal of water/#cement
bags)

Note:
1. Strength is reduced due to
larger volume of free water
voids
2. Potable water must be used
3. Sea water reduces f’c ≈ 12%
4. Durability suffers
5. By US standards 1bag = 94lbs.
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardening and Strengthening of Concrete

 Effect of Temperature
 Effect of moisture availability
 Effect of water / cement ratio
 Effect of Low Permeability (water tightness)
 Minimize freeze thaw vulnerability
 Minimize leaching (calcium hydroxide) long term
deterioration
 To Reduce Permeability
 Mix using reduced w/c ratio
 Use well graded, min size, impervious aggregates
 Use moist curing
 Use pozzolan admixtures
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Volume Stability (also important in P/C)

 Plastic shrinkage
 Drying shrinkage (changes in moisture content,
humidity,…)
 Coefficient of thermal expansion, a=5.5E-6 in/in/degF
 Effect of reactive aggregate
 Effect of absorptive aggregates
 Lower w/c ratio improves performance
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

Mechanical Properties

 Strength (f’c): the ultimate stress at failure of a 6 in

diameter cylinder tested at 28 days (C172, C31)

 Strength: Generally

2500psi < f’c < 8000 but up to and beyond 14000psi

Typical Stress-Strain Curves for f’c
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Mechanical Properties (cont’d)

 Modulus of Elasticity: fn of f’c, unit weight, rate

of loading, …

E ≈ 33(w3/2)√ f’c,
where w = unit weight in pcf & f’c is in psi

For normal weight concrete E ≈ 57000√ f’c

 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Poisson’s Ratio
 Ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain
μ = Єx/Єl
for f < ~ 0.7f’c, 0.15< μ < 0.20, use μ≈0.17

 Creep (deformation under constant stress) fn of:

 Stress level
 Ambient relative humidity (doubles for 50%RH
compared to 100%RH)
 Concrete strength (f’c)
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Creep (cont’d)

Specific Creep Creep Coef.

f’c (psi) x 10-6 in/in/psi Єcr/Єinst
3000 1.00 3.1
4000 0.80 2.9
5000 0.55 2.4
6000 0.40 2.0
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Creep Example

Q: How much will a 30 ft column creep if it is loaded to

a stress of 3000psi and it is built using 5000 psi
concrete (assume no steel reinforcement)?

A: S.C.= 0.55 for f’c = 5 ksi

fc = 3ksi

 3000#/sq in x 0.55 in/in/psi x 30 ft x 12 in/ft =

0.59in
 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Fatigue Strength (strength under cycles of loading)

Dynamic Stress Ratio (DSR) = Max. Stress to reach

2x106 cycles / f’c

0.5 < DSR < 0.6; for normal weight concrete

0.7 < DSR < 0.95; for fiber reinforced concrete

 MATERIALS: PCC (cont’d)

Hardened Concrete (cont’d)

 Mechanical Properties (cont’d)

 Tensile Strength (How Tested?)

 Direct Tension; f’t ≈ 3√f’c

 Flexural Tension; f’t ≈ 9√f’c

 Split Cylinder Tension; f’t ≈ 6.3√f’c

Note: ACI 318 recommends modulus of

rupture, fr = 7.5√f’c (possible but not reliably so)
 MATERIALS: V. ADMIXTURES

 Chemical (usually in liquid form) and Mineral (granulated)

 Will generally increases material costs and are designed to:
 Improve workability (water reducers, super plasticizers)
 Improve durability (air entrainers)
 Retard set
 Accelerate hardening (and strengthening)
 Improve cohesiveness (reduce segregation of the mixture)
 Reduce heat of hydration
 Reduce amounts of pc required (to help reduce cost)
 Improve gel density (to increase strength and reduce permeability)
 Improve pumping ability
 Use must be studied to determine performance with respect to:
 Mixing and placing
 Shelf life of the admixtures
 Affect on other factors, such as corrosion of embedments
 MATERIALS: VI. REINFORCEMENT

STEEL (Bars, Wires, Rolled sections)

 Conventional reinforcement (re-bars, wire fabric, wire, rolled shapes)
 Pre-stressing (bars, strand)
 Post Tensioning (strand)
 Bars: #2 < d < #11, : #14, #18 (US std)
¼”<d < 1-3/8” : 1-3/4”, 2-1/4”
ASTM A 305 : ASTM A 408
 MATERIALS: VI. REINFORCEMENT (cont’d)

REINFORCEMENT (Other)
 Mesh (Fabric)
From cold drawn wire, welded or woven
 Fiber
 Cold drawn chopped steel wire (deformed, …)
 Slit sheet material
 Melt extraction
 Glass strand (tow)
 Polymer materials (polypropylene, nylon,…)
 Carbon
 Vegetable
 Others
 MATERIALS: REINFORCEMENT (cont’d)

STEEL PROPERTIES: Conventional Re-Bar

 Yield Strength
 Old: 33 ksi (no longer available)
 New: 40ksi, 60ksi, 75ksi (only in larger sizes
#11, #14, #18)

 Elastic Modulus (steel)

 Es = 29x106psi for re-bar

 Thermal Expansion Coefficient (steel)

 as = 6.5 x (10-6) in/in/degF
 MATERIALS: REINFORCEMENT (cont’d)

Other Types (cont’d)

 Pre-Stressing Strand (steel)

 Single wire
 3 wire twisted
 5 wire twisted
 7 wire twisted
 High strength bars
 Yield Strength (steel)
 P/C: 130 - 230ksi
 Elastic Modulus (steel)
 Es = 29x106psi for re-bar
 Es = 26x106psi for strand
 Thermal Expansion
 as = 6.5 x (10-6) in/in/degF
Re-bar Types and Markings
Standard Re-Bar Designations
 Codes and Standards Organizations
 Codes and Standards are developed to help regulate:
 Workmanship
 Engineering practice
 Testing and Evaluation

 They are promulgated by associations of:

 Builders
 Suppliers
 Gov’t agencies
 Design professionals
 Academics

 Representative organizations are:

 Amer. Iron and Steel Inst. (AISI)
 Amer. Inst. Of Steel Constr. (AISC)
 Amer. Concrete Institute (ACI)
 Portland Cement Assoc. (PCA)
 Nat’l Sand and Gravel Assoc. (NSGA)
 Amer. Plywood Assoc. (APA)
 Nat’l Ready Mix Concr. Assoc (NRMCA)
 Codes and Standards Organizations (cont’d)
 Amer. Inst. Of Architects (AIA)
 Amer. Soc of Civil Eng. (ASCE)
 Amer. Soc. For Testing and Materials (ASTM)
 Nat’l Inst. For Standards and Technology (NIST)
 Occupational Safety and Health Admin. (OSHA)
 Amer. Welding Society (AWS)
 Amer. Assoc. of State Hwy & Trans Officials (AASHTO)
 Underwriters Laboratory (UL)

 Building Code Org.

 Bldg Officials Conf. Of Amer. (BOCA)
 Int’l Conf. Of Bldg Officials (ICBO)
 Standard Building Code Cong. (SBCCA)
 NYC Building Code
 Florida Building Code (FBC) (replaces South Florida Building Code)
 …
 Structural Loads

 LOADS
 Dead

 Constant in Magnitude

 Fixed in Location

 Readily and Accurately Determined

 Live

 Dependant on Occupancy Type

 Time Varying

 Location Varying

 Distribution Varying

 Includes Dynamic

 Environmental

 Snow, Wind, Earthquake, Rain, Temperature, Hydrostatic,

Blast, Earth Pressures
 Structural Strength and Serviceability

 Strength
 Strength (stress at failure) must exceed applied stress, or
 Strength (load capacity at failure) must exceed factored loading

 Serviceability (Performance)
 Deflections must be small and controlled
 Cracking must be small and controlled
 Vibrations must be small and controlled
 Construction must be fire resistive
 Construction must be durable
 Structural Strength and Serviceability (cont’d)

 Safety in Limit Analysis

 Safety Margin must be > 0
  Strength (S) – Effect of Loads (Q) > 0
 To Assure Safety (Modern Way) :
 Strength (capacity) is artificially reduced by the under-
strength factor, Φ. (value  1.0)
 Loads are artificially increased by load factor, γ,(value > 1.0)

 Safety is then assured when γQ  ΦS

Note: 1) the load factor, γ,varies with the load type

2) the capacity factor, Φ, varies with type of stress
Structural Strength and Serviceability (cont’d)

 Safety in Working Stress Analysis (Archaic):

 Stresses must be lower than limit state (at some artificially

lower allowable value)

 Loads are applied as actual (service or working) loads

 Safety is assured when σservice < σallow < σyield

where σservice = σworking= service or working stress
respectively, and σyield = yield (limit) stress
 THE TWO FACTOR SYSTEM OF DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

 LOAD FACTORS (LF or γ):

Factors (multipliers) > 1.0 applied to various load types, ie., Dead
(D), Live (L), Live Roof (Lr), Wind (W), Earthquake (E), Lateral
Earth Pressure (H), Rain (R), Snow (S), Temperature (T), Fluids (F).

 CAPACITY REDUCTION (Under-strength) FACTORS (Φ):

Factors (multipliers) < 1.0 applied to the theoretical capacities of

structural elements.
 ACI 318 CODES AND STANDARDS
 ACI318-08 Factored Load Combinations
 Basic: U = 1.2D+1.6L
 Wind: U=1.2D+1.0L+1.6W+0.5(Lr or S or R)
U=0.9D+1.6W+1.6H
 Earthquake ….

 ACI318-08 Strength Reduction (Φ)* Factors

 Tension controls (Єt>0.005)*: Φ = 0.9
 Tension/Compr. controls (0.002<Єt<0.005): Linear Interpolate
 Compression controls (Єt<0.002): Φ = 0.65**
 Shear and Torsion: Φ = 0.75
 Bearing: Φ = 0.65

* Єt = net strain in the tensile reinforcing furthest from the NA.

** Φ = 0.7 if spiral ties are used
 BASIC MECHANICS of REINFORCED CONCRETE

 Fundamental Assumptions of Reinforced Concrete

Behavior

 1. There is equilibrium between internal and external

forces
 2. The strain in the reinforcement is the same as that in
the surrounding (adjacent) concrete
 3. Cross-sections that were plane before loading remain plane
after loading
 4. There is zero tensile strength assigned to concrete
 5. Non-linear material behavior is possible and
acceptable
 DESIGN and ANALYSIS PHILOSOPHIES

 Elastic (Working Stress) Analysis and Design

 WSD (Working Stress) Design & Analysis
 Based on an allowable stress not to be exceeded under
actual (service) loading conditions

 Limit (Ultimate Strength) Analysis and Design

 USD (Ultimate Strength) Design & Analysis
 Based on reaching the limiting value of material strength
(steel, fy, or concrete, f’c) under factored loading
conditions.
These are explored separately starting with WSD
 Working Stress (Analysis)

 BASIS of the PROCEDURE

 Stress calculations are based on actual (service) loads
 Stress is in constant proportion to strain
 Factor of Safety, FS = syield / sallow
 Strain in concrete adjacent to reinforcing steel is the same as that of
the steel (Є c = Є s but only at location of the steel)

 TRANSFORMED AREAS
 Since Єc = Єs, and since fc = Ec Єc and fs = Es Єs (Hookes Law) then
fc/Ec = fs/Es

or

fs = (Es/Ec) fc = n fc, n = modular ratio

Note : n >1.0 and n ≈ 7 or 8 or 9
 Transformed Area Concept
(Transform two material components into one material)
For example:
For an axially loaded member
SF y = 0
-P + fcAc + fsAs = 0
P = fcAc + nfcAs
P = fc(Ac + nAs)
 Ac + nAs = Trans. Area

(The area of steel is transformed

to an effective concrete area)

Note: Atrans = Ac + nAs

= Ag + (n-1)As
Example 1: Find Un-cracked CG and I
Based on Transformed Areas
 CRACKED SECTION ANALYSIS

 For a cracked section:

 Tensile stress in concrete cannot be transferred across a crack

 Tensile stress is transferred along reinforcement
 Compression is effective in both concrete & steel reinforcement
(if compression reinforcement is used)
 The centroid of a homogeneous material is located at its center
of gravity (CG is at area centroid)
Therefore, by definition, the first moment of an area about its
centroid is zero.

Ycg = ydA = 0
Example 2: Find CG and I for a cracked section
 Bending Stresses in Transformed Beams

 Method I: Euler Bending Theory (Recall the flexure formula for

elastic homogeneous material)
s=My / I, fcc = My / I
and fs = nfcs = n(My/I)
 Cracked Section Based on Force-Couple

 Method II: Mcouple = F x d

 From SFx = 0
 T = As(fs) = C = ½(kd)(fcc)(b)

 From SM = 0
 M = T(d-kd/3) = C(d-kd/3) = T(jd) = C(jd)

 jd = (d-kd/3) = d(1-k/3),  j = (1-k/3)

 Cracked Section Based on Force-Couple (cont’d)

 Note:
 1. fcc = M / [(½)(b)(kd)(jd)]
 2. fs = M / [(As)(jd)]
 3. There is no need to use n (except to find kd)
 4. There is no need to compute I
 Problem Types:
 1. Given M (bending moment) & beam dimensions
Find Stresses (fcc, fcs or fs)
 2. Given allowable stresses & beam dimensions
Find allowable moment, Ma
 EXAMPLE: Find the max. stress in the cracked concrete
beam in compression and tension for an applied moment,
M = 100 k-ft.
 Note: When compression steel is present the
effect of creep is to transfer greater compression
stress to the steel,  use 2n to transform the
steel area, and subtract the area of compression
steel, As’, from the effective area.
 Introduction to
Ultimate Strength (Limit) Analysis and Design

While fundamentally different in comparison to Working Stress Design

(WSD), note the similarities in the development of the analysis.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
 ULTIMATE STRENGTH FAILURE

 STAGE 4: Failure in Bending

 A) Over-Reinforced (Compression Controls)
 i) steel does not yield

 ii) concrete reaches maximum compressive strain

(u≈0.003in/in) and maximum stress (f’c) is reached
 iii) failure is sudden (concrete bursts)

 B) Under-Reinforced (Tension Controlled)

 i) steel yields

 ii) cracks open in tension side of flexure (warning)

 iii) failure proceeds gradually (ductile and slow) as steel

yields and neutral axis moves towards compression surface
 C) Balanced Failure
 Both A and B occur simultaneously
 MODES OF BEAM FAILURE
 Very Little Steel (Less then ACI req’d minimum)
 Steel yields excessively (steel may fracture  brittle failure)
 Excessive cracking occurs

 Moderate Steel (Under-reinforced beams)

 Some cracking
 Steel eventually yields
 Large (noticeable) deflections and cracking

 Too Much Steel (Over-reinforced beams)

 Steel does not yield
 Concrete strength is exceeded
 Small deflections (not noticeable, no warning of danger)
 Concrete suddenly bursts (brittle failure)
 Classification by Amount of Reinforcement

 Define the fractional area of reinforcement in a beam in

comparison to the cross-sectional area of the beam, ρ.
ρ = As/(b)(d) = steel ratio
 Define ρb = the balanced steel ratio
ρunder rein. < ρb < ρover rein.

ρb = theoretical value of a steel ratio that separates

under-reinforced (steel yields) beams from over-
reinforced (concrete fails) beams.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH: Model and Nomenclature
 USD Modeling (cont’d)

 a = β1 c
where for f’c <= 4000psi
β1 = 0.85,
and for f’c > 4000psi
 f ' c  4000 
 1  0.85  0.05
 1000 
providing β1 ≥ 0.65
 Assume that at the
concrete failure (0.85f’c)
Єu, the ultimate concrete
strain, = 0.003
 USD Modeling (cont’d)

 For a beam cross-section

as shown:
 b = beam width
 Єu = ultimate comp.
strain (use 0.003)
 Єt = max. ten. strain
 c = location of NA
 dt = location of extreme
tension steel
 d = effective depth to
centroid of tension steel
 As = total area of tension
steel
 USD Modeling (cont’d)

 Therefore, for any specified net tensile strain the

maximum steel ratio for that strain can be found
 For example: If Єt = 0.004, Then
 ACI 318 Provisions

 ACI318 encourages the use of lower reinforcement ratios, ρ , for

tension controlled (steel yield) beam failure by allowing higher
capacity reduction factors, Φ.
 If Єt ≥ 0.005, Φ = 0.9 and c/dt = 0.375

 Compression controlled:
 If Єt < 0.002, Φ = 0.65 and c/dt = 0.600

 In between (0.002 < Єt < 0.005) :

 Interpolate for Φ between 0.65 and 0.9

Note: at Єt = 0.004, c/dt = 0.429  minimum Єt recommended for

beams
Unified Flexural Analysis & Design
 USD Modeling (cont’d)

 Since SFx = 0: T = C
 Then T = (As)(fs) = C = (0.85f’c)(b)(a)
 Since SMz = 0:
 Then Mn = (As)(fs)[d-a/2] = T[d-a/2], or
Mn = (0.85f’c)(b)(a)[d-a/2] = C[d-a/2]
 Alternately,
 Substitute: As = ρbd and a=Asfy/0.85 f’c (b)
 Then the nominal strength of the beam is:
 Mn = ρfybd2[1-0.59(fy/f’c)ρ]
 And the reduced capacity strength is:
 Mu = ΦMn = Φρfybd2[1-0.59(fy/f’c)ρ]
EXAMPLE 1
 Example 2

 Determine the moment

capacity of the beam; f’c =
5ksi,fy = 60ksi.
 Hints:
 Check if beam is under-
reinf.
 T = C = C1 + C2

 Assume Whitney stress

 Take moments about steel

centroid.
 Example 2 (cont’d)

 SOLUTION  c/d = 4.52/(0.80)(18) = 0.314< 0.375

 ρ = As/(32+(14)(20))   Φ = 0.90

= 5(0.6)/312 = 0.0096  C1 = 0.85(5)(32) = 136k

 ρmax = (0.85)(0.8)(5/60)(.003/.007)  C2 = 0.85(5)(0.52)(20)= 44.2k

= 0.0243  Mu = Φ[C1(d-2) +C2(d-4.52-0.52/2)]

 ρ < ρmax  Tension Controls Note: C1 + C2 = 180k

 T = Asfy = 5(0.6)(60) = 180k   Mu = 0.9[136(16) + 44(13.22)]

 C = 0.85(5)[32+(a-4)(20)] = 180k = 2482k-” = 207k-ft.

 a = 4.52" > 4.0"  OK

 SUMMARY ULTIMATE STRENGTH FLEXURAL ANALYSIS

 For Under-reinforced beams when axial loads < 0.1(f’c)Ag

 ρ = As/bd

 ρ ≤ ρЄt = 0.85(f’c/fy)β1[0.003/(0.003+Єt)]

 Mu = ΦAsfy[d-a/2] = Φ(.85f’c)ba[d-a/2]

 where a = As(fy)/.85(f’c)(b) = β1 (c)

 Alternately, by substituting for ‘a’ and use ρ = As/bd

 Mu = Φρbd2(fy)[1-0.59(fy/f’c)(ρ)]

 For tension controlled beams with Φ=0.9 ACI318 requires

Єmin ≥ 0.005 ( c/d < 0.375) otherwise Єmin ≥ 0.004 & Φ≤0.9
 ACI Required Steel Ratios

 Can there be too little steel in a beam?

 Asmin= [(3√f’c)/fy]bwd ≥ (200/fy)bwd, or

 ρmin ≤ (3√f’c)/fy ≥ 200/fy, or
 ρmin=1/3 greater than required by design
ACI318 10.5.1-4

See also requirements for slabs ACI318 7.12.

 END HERE