2 Strain

Technological Institute of the Philippines Prepared by: Engr. Adams Royce A.
Dionisio, RCE
938 Aurora Blvd., Cubao, Quezon City Structural Engineer
College of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
CE 003
Mechanics of Deformable
Bodies
Technological Institute of the Philippines Prepared by: Engr. Adams Royce A. Dionisio, RCE
Strain
Strain- is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body and is independent of what actually
causes the deformation.
Deformation- change in shape and size.
Two types of Strain
Normal Strain (𝝐)- or axial strain, is defined as the elongation per unit length and characterizes dimensional
𝛿
changes. 𝜖 =
𝐿
𝐿 𝛿
𝛿 𝜖 = (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝐿
𝑑𝛿
𝜖= (𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝑑𝐿 𝑑𝛿 𝑑𝐿
𝑑𝛿 = 𝜖 𝑑𝐿
𝛿 𝐿
න 𝑑𝛿 = න 𝜖 𝑑𝐿
0 0
Mechanical Properties of Materials
Tension or Compression Test- used primarily to determine the relationship between the average normal stress
and average normal strain in a material
Extensometer- an optical device that

measures the elongation
Stress-Strain Diagram
Proportional Limit- the end point of the straight line on the stress- 𝐹 𝐹
strain diagram following Hooke’s Law which states that the stress
is directly proportional to strain postulated by Robert Hooke in 𝜎
1676 the slope of which is called the modulus of elasticity or
Young’s modulus(named after Thomas Young at 1807) which is
the constant of proportionality for axial loading. 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
Elastic Limit- is the point beyond which the material is no longer 𝜎𝑦 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝜎𝐸𝐿
elastic(returns to its original shape when the load is removed) 𝜎 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
and produces a permanent deformation called permanent set
𝑃𝐿 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
after the removal of load. It is slightly larger than the proportional
limit and usually assumed to coincide with it[proportional limit] 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
due to difficulty in determining its value accurately. 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝜖
Yield Point- is the point where the stress-strain diagram becomes almost
horizontal and the corresponding stress is called the yield stress/ 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐
strength. Beyond the yield point there is an appreciable elongation, or 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟
yielding(permanent deformation, also called plastic deformation) of the
material without a corresponding increase in load(perfectly plastic).
Indeed, the load may actually decrease while the yielding occurs.
𝐹 𝐹
Ultimate Strength- or ultimate stress, is the highest stress on
the stress-strain curve.
Rupture Strength- or rupture stress, is the stress at which failure 𝜎
occurs. 𝜎𝑟 ′ 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜎𝑢 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Ductile Materials- any material that can be subjected to large 𝜎𝑟
𝜎𝑦 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
strains before it fractures 𝜎𝐸𝐿 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑟𝑢𝑝𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝜎𝑃𝐿 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡
Brittle Materials- materials that exhibit little or no yielding 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
before failure
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐹 𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝜖
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟

𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟
Strain Energy- is the internal energy stored in a material due to deformation from the work done by an external
load
𝜎
𝜎𝑃𝐿
∆𝑈
= 𝑢𝑅 = (𝜎𝑃𝐿 )(𝜖 𝑃𝐿 )(1/2)
∆𝑉
𝜖
𝜖 𝑃𝐿
𝐹 𝛿 Modulus of Resilience (𝒖𝑹 )- is the area under the stress-strain
𝜎= 𝜖=
𝑈 = 𝐹(𝛿)(1/2) 𝐴 𝐿 diagram up to the proportional limit and represents the
largest amount of internal strain energy per unit volume the
∆𝑈 = (𝜎 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦)(𝜖 ∆𝑧)(1/2) material can absorb without causing any permanent damage
∆𝑉 = ( ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧) to the material.
∆𝑈
= 𝑢 = (𝜎)(𝜖)(1/2) Strain energy density-
∆𝑉 Modulus of Toughness (𝒖𝑻 )- is the entire area under the
strain energy per unit
stress-strain diagram indicating the maximum amount of
volume
strain-energy the material can absorb just before it fractures.
Strain
Strain- is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation of a body and is independent of what actually
causes the deformation.
Deformation- change in shape and size.
Two types of Strain
Normal Strain (𝝐)- or axial strain, is defined as the elongation per unit length and characterizes dimensional
𝛿
changes. 𝜖 =
𝐿 𝛿
Shear Strain (𝜸)- measures the amount of distortion (changes in angles in radians) per unit length. 𝛾 = 𝑠
𝐿
𝑑𝛿𝑠
𝑉 Hooke’s Law states that the stress is directly

proportional to strain postulated by Robert
Hooke in 1676 the slope of which is called the
𝛾 𝑑𝐿
𝐿 shear modulus of elasticity (or simply shear
modulus) or the modulus of rigidity which is
the constant of proportionality for shear
𝛿𝑠 loading. 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾
𝑑𝛿𝑠 𝛿𝑠
tan 𝛾 = =𝛾 න 𝛾 𝑑𝐿 = න 𝑑𝛿𝑠 𝛾=
𝑑𝐿 𝐿
Sample Problems:
1. A specimen is originally 1 ft long, has a diameter of 0.5 in., and is subjected to a force of 500 lb. When the
force is increased from 500 lb to 1800 lb, the specimen elongates 0.009 in. Determine the modulus of elasticity
for the material if it remains linear elastic.
Solution:
𝑑 = 0.5 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝛿 𝜎(𝑝𝑠𝑖)
500 𝑙𝑏 500 𝑙𝑏 𝜎 = 𝜖=
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝐿 𝜎𝑓
1800 𝑙𝑏 1800 𝑙𝑏
1 𝑓𝑡 500 𝑙𝑏 8000 𝜎𝑖
𝜎𝑖 = 𝜋 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(0.52 ) 𝜋
4 𝜖(𝑖𝑛/𝑖𝑛)
0 𝑖𝑛 𝜖𝑓
𝜖𝑖 = =0
12 𝑖𝑛
1800 𝑙𝑏 28,800
𝜎𝑓 = 𝜋 = 𝑝𝑠𝑖 [𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖]
2
(0.5 ) 𝜋
4 𝜎𝑓 − 𝜎𝑖
0.009 𝑖𝑛 𝐸= = 8,827,794.18 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜖𝑓 = = 0.00075 𝜖𝑓 − 𝜖 𝑖
12 𝑖𝑛
Sample Problems:
2. The stress-strain diagram for elastic fibers that make up human skin and muscle is shown. Determine the
modulus of elasticity of the fibers and estimate their modulus of toughness and modulus of resilience.
Solution:
Modulus of Resilience (𝒖𝑹 )- is the area under the stress-strain
diagram up to the proportional limit and represents the
largest amount of internal strain energy per unit volume the
material can absorb without causing any permanent damage
to the material.
Modulus of Toughness (𝒖𝑻 )- is the entire area under the

[𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 11 − 0 = 𝐸(2 − 0) 𝐸 = 5.5 𝑝𝑠𝑖 stress-strain diagram indicating the maximum amount of
∆𝑈 1 strain-energy the material can absorb just before it fractures.
= 𝑢𝑅 = 𝜎𝑃𝐿 𝜖 𝑃𝐿
∆𝑉 2
1
𝑢𝑅 = 2 − 0 11 − 0 = 11 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
1
𝑢 𝑇 = 11 + [ 11 − 0 + (55 − 0)](2.25 − 2) = 19.25 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
Sample Problems:
3. A structural member in a nuclear reactor is made of a zirconium alloy. If an axial load of 4 kips is to be
supported by the member, determine its required cross-sectional area. Use a factor of safety of 3 relative to
yielding. What is the load on the member if it is 3 ft long and its elongation is 0.02 in.? 𝐸𝑧𝑟 = 14𝑥103 𝑘𝑠𝑖, 𝜎𝑦 =
57.5 𝑘𝑠𝑖. The material has elastic behavior.
Solution:
𝑑𝑃 𝜎𝑓𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑟𝑒 [𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝛿
𝜎= 𝐹𝑆 = 𝜖=
𝑑𝐴 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐿
3 𝑓𝑡
𝐹 3 𝑘𝑠𝑖
0.02 𝑖𝑛
57.5 𝑘𝑠𝑖 4 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 = 14𝑥10
= 0.2087 𝑖𝑛2 3 𝑓𝑡 (12)
3 𝐴
4 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝐴 = 0.2087 𝑖𝑛2 𝐹 = 1.623 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
0.02 𝑖𝑛
𝐹
Sample Problems:
4. Data taken from a stress–strain test for a ceramic are given in the table. The curve is linear between the
origin and the first point. Plot the diagram, and determine the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of
resilience.
Solution:
𝜎 𝜎𝑓 − 𝜎𝑖
𝐸= =
𝜖 𝜖𝑓 − 𝜖𝑖
𝜎
𝜎𝑃𝐿 33.2 − 0
𝐸= = 55,333.33 𝑘𝑠𝑖
0.0006 − 0
∆𝑈 1
𝜖 = 𝑢𝑅 = 𝜎𝑃𝐿 𝜖 𝑃𝐿
∆𝑉 2
𝜖 𝑃𝐿
1
𝑢𝑅 = 33.2 − 0 0.0006 − 0 = 9.96 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2
Sample Problems:
5. The A-36-steel band is 2 in. wide and is secured around the smooth rigid cylinder. If the bolts are tightened
so that the tension in them is 400 lb, determine the normal stress in the band, the pressure exerted on the
cylinder, and the distance the band stretches.
Solution:
𝐹 400 𝑙𝑏
𝜎= 𝜎𝑇 = 𝜎𝑇 = 1600 𝑝𝑠𝑖
400 𝑙𝑏 400 𝑙𝑏 𝐴 1
𝑖𝑛 (2 𝑖𝑛)
8
1
𝑝𝐷 (𝑝) 16 + 𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑇 = 1600 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 8 𝑝 = 24.81 𝑝𝑠𝑖
2𝑡 2(1/8 𝑖𝑛)
400 𝑙𝑏 400 𝑙𝑏
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 6
𝛿
1600 𝑝𝑠𝑖 = 29𝑥10 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝛿 1 1
𝜖= 𝜋 8 𝑖𝑛 +
2 8
𝐿
𝛿 = 0.0014 𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s Ratio
Poisson’s Ratio (𝝂)- is the ratio (ranging from 1/4 to 1/3 for steel, 0.2 for concrete, with a maximum value of
1/2) of the lateral strain to the axial or longitudinal strain, stated as constant when the stresses are within the
−𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
proportional limit by the French Scientist 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑛 ƴ 𝐷. 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛 in 1811; 𝜈 =
𝜖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐿𝑧 𝜖𝑧
𝑦 𝜖𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 0) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔: 𝐸
−𝜖𝑦 −𝜖𝑥 𝐺 =
𝑧 𝜎𝑧 2(1 + 𝜈)
𝜈= = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐸𝜖 𝑧
𝜖𝑧 𝜖𝑧
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 (𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 ≠ 0) 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑦 𝜎𝑧 = 𝐸𝜖𝑧𝑧 𝜖𝑦𝑧 = 𝜖𝑥𝑧 = −𝜈𝜖𝑧𝑧 = −𝜈𝜎𝑧 /𝐸
𝑧 𝜖𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝑦 = 𝐸𝜖𝑦𝑦 𝜖𝑧𝑦 = 𝜖𝑥𝑦 = −𝜈𝜖𝑦𝑦 = −𝜈𝜎𝑦 /𝐸
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥
𝜖𝑦𝑦 𝜖𝑦𝑧 𝜖𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜖𝑥𝑥 𝜖𝑦𝑥 = 𝜖𝑧𝑥 = −𝜈𝜖𝑥𝑥 = −𝜈𝜎𝑥 /𝐸
𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧 𝜎𝑧 𝜈𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑥
𝜖𝑧 = 𝜖𝑧𝑧 + 𝜖𝑧𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧𝑥 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜖𝑦𝑥 𝑥 𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑧 𝜈𝜎𝑥
𝑧 𝜎𝑥 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦𝑦 + 𝜖𝑦𝑧 + 𝜖𝑦𝑥 = − −
𝜎𝑦 𝜖𝑧𝑥 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
𝜖𝑧𝑦 𝜖𝑧𝑥
𝜎𝑥 𝜈𝜎𝑦 𝜈𝜎𝑧
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥𝑥 + 𝜖𝑥𝑦 + 𝜖𝑥𝑧 = − −
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
Sample Problems:
1. The friction pad A is used to support the member, which is subjected to an axial force of P= 2 kN. The pad is
made from a material having a modulus of elasticity of E= 4 MPa and Poisson’s ratio 𝜈 = 0.4. If slipping does
not occur, determine the normal and shear strains in the pad. The width is 50 mm. Assume that the material is
linearly elastic. Also, neglect the effect of the moment acting on the pad
Solution:
𝐹 𝑉 𝐸
[𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝜎= 𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 𝜏= 𝐺=
2 sin 60° 𝐴 𝐴 2(1 + 𝜈)
2000 sin 60° 2000 cos 60° 4
2 cos 60° = 4𝜖 = 𝛾
100(50) 100(50) 2 1 + 0.4
𝑉 𝜖 = 0.0866 𝛾 = 0.14 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑁
Sample Problems:
2. The thin-walled tube is subjected to an axial force of 40 kN. If the tube elongates 3 mm and its circumference
decreases 0.09 mm, determine the modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, and the shear modulus of the tube’s
material. The material behaves elastically
Solution:
−𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙
𝐹 𝛿 𝜈= 𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
[𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝜎 = 𝜖= 𝜖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝐴 𝐿
12.5 + 10
40,000 3 𝑟0 𝑘𝑁 = = 11.25 𝑚𝑚
=𝐸 2
𝜋 900
(252 − 202 )
4 2𝜋 11.25 − 0.09 = 2𝜋𝑟40 𝑘𝑁
𝐸 = 67,906.109 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑟40 𝑘𝑁 = 11.236 𝑚𝑚
𝑟40 𝑘𝑁 − 𝑟0 𝑘𝑁 = −0.014 𝑚𝑚
𝐸 67,906.109 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (0.014/11.25)
𝐺= 𝐺= = 24,568.557 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜈= = 0.382
2 1+𝜈 2(1 + 0.382) 3/900
Sample Problems:
3. The aluminum block has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to an axial compressive force of 8 kips.
If the 1.5-in. side changed its length to 1.500132 in., determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length of the 2-in.
side. 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 10𝑥103 𝑘𝑠𝑖.
Solution:
−𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝛿
𝜈= 𝜖=
𝐹 𝜖𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐿
[𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝜎 =
𝐴 (1.500132 − 1.5)/1.5
𝜈= = 0.33
8 0.00026
= (10𝑥103 )𝜖
1.5(2) (𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑤 − 2)/2
0.33 =
𝜖 = 0.00026 0.00026
𝐿𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 2.000176 𝑖𝑛
Thermal Strain
Thermal Strain (𝝐𝑻 )- is the strain resulting from changes in temperature equal to the product of coefficient of
thermal expansion (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙, 12 𝑥 10−6 /℃ or 6.6 𝑥 10−6 /℉, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑚, 23 𝑥 10−6 /℃ or 12.8 𝑥 10−6 /℉)
and the change in temperature; 𝜖 𝑇 = 𝛼(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
𝛿
𝜖= 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐿
𝐿 𝛿𝑇
𝜎𝑇
Sample Problems:
4. The 40-ft-long A-36 steel rails on a train track are laid with a small gap between them to allow for thermal
expansion. Determine the required gap 𝛿 so that the rails just touch one another when the temperature is
increased from 𝑇1 = −20℉ to 𝑇2 = 90℉. 𝛼 = 6.6 𝑥 10−6 /℉. Using this gap, what would be the axial force in the
rails if the temperature were to rise to 𝑇3 = 110℉? The cross-sectional area of each rail is 5.10 𝑖𝑛2 .
Solution:
𝐹
[𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝜎=
𝐴
𝐹
2
= 29𝑥106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 [(6.6 𝑥 10−6 /℉)(110℉ − (90℉))]
5.10 𝑖𝑛
𝛿
𝜖 𝑇 = 𝛼(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ) 𝜖= 𝐹 = 19,522.8 𝑙𝑏
𝐿
𝛿−20℉ 𝑡𝑜 90℉ = (6.6 𝑥 10−6 /℉)(90℉ − (−20℉))(40 𝑓𝑡)(12 𝑖𝑛/1𝑓𝑡)
𝛿 = 0.34848 𝑖𝑛
Sample Problems:
5. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two rods, one made of steel and the other of
bronze. Neglecting the weight of the bar, compute the stress in each rod caused by the 50-kN load, using the
following data:
Solution:
𝐹𝐿 𝐹𝐿
↺ +𝑀𝐴 = 0 1.6 = 0.6
𝐴𝐸 𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝐸 𝑏𝑟
𝐹𝑠𝑡 0.6 + 𝐹𝑏𝑟 1.6 − 50 2.4 = 0
𝐹𝑠𝑡 (1) 𝐹𝑏𝑟 (2)
↑ +𝐹𝑉 = 0 1.6 = 0.6
600(200) 300(83)
𝐴𝑉 + 𝐹𝑠𝑡 + 𝐹𝑏𝑟 − 50 = 0
0.6(2)(600)(200)
→ +𝐹𝐻 = 0 𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 𝐹𝑏𝑟
1.6(1)(300)(83)
𝐴𝐻 = 0
𝐹𝑠𝑡 0.6 + 𝐹𝑏𝑟 1.6 − 50 2.4 = 0
𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝛿𝑏𝑟
𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 1.6𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 0.6𝛿𝑏𝑟 𝐹𝑏𝑟 = 31.841 𝑘𝑁 𝐹𝑠𝑡 = 115.09 𝑘𝑁
𝐹𝑏𝑟 0.6 1.6
𝐴𝐻 𝐹 𝛿 31.841 𝑥 103
𝛿𝑠𝑡 [𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖] 𝜎 = 𝜖= 𝜎𝑏𝑟 = = 106.138 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝛿𝑏𝑟 𝐴 𝐿 300
𝐴𝑉 𝐹𝐿 115.09 𝑥 103
𝛿= 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = = 191.816 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝐴𝐸 600

2 Strain

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2 Strain

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Technological Institute of the Philippines Prepared by: Engr. Adams Royce A.

Extensometer- an optical device that

𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑏𝑒ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑜𝑟

𝑉 Hooke’s Law states that the stress is directly

Modulus of Toughness (𝒖𝑻 )- is the entire area under the

𝐸 = 67,906.109 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑟40 𝑘𝑁 = 11.236 𝑚𝑚

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