Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE

F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MECH 3 – MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE BODIES Period: 2nd Sem. AY .2021-2022

Course Instructor: Engr. Neri Dianne M. Bacuño Course and Year: BSCE 2
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2. Stress and Strain – Axial Loading
Outline of Learning Topics
A. Axial Deformation
B. Stress-strain diagram; Material Properties
C. Poisson’s Ratio; Shear Loading
D. Elastic Deformation under Axial Loading; Statically Indeterminate Problems
E. Thermal Stresses

Specific Intended Learning Outcome/s (SILOs)

At the end of this topic, the student should be able to:
• Introduce the concept of strain;
• Discuss the relationship between stress and strain in the different materials, stress-strain diagram;
• Discuss lateral strain and Poisson’s ratio;
• Explain the concept of Hooke’s Law for axial and shear loading;
• Determine the deformation of structural component under axial loading;
• Solve statically indeterminate problems using the concept stress and strain;
• Determine the deformation due to thermal stress.

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Another important aspect of the analysis and design of structures relates to the deformations caused by the
loads applied to a structure. In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures the deformation
of a body. There are two types of strain: normal strain, which characterizes dimensional changes, and shear
strain, which describes distortion (changes in angles). Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of
mechanics of materials. Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical properties of a material, the
knowledge of which is of the utmost importance in design.

A. Axial Deformation
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the body’s shape and size. These changes
are referred to as deformation, and they may be either highly visible or practically unnoticeable. Deformation
of a body can also occur when the temperature of the body is changed.

In order to describe the deformation of a body by changes in length

of line segments and the changes in the angles between them, the concept
of strain is introduced. Strain is actually measured by experiments.

Normal (Axial) Strain

Consider a rod BC of length L and uniform cross-sectional area A,

which is suspended from B (Fig. 1.1a). If you apply a load P to end C, the
rod elongates (Fig. 1.1b) and produced a deformation of 𝛿 (Greek letter
delta). Thus, strain is developed. Plotting the magnitude P of the load
against the deformation 𝛿, you obtain a load-deformation diagram (Fig. 2).

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 1 of 8

 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

The normal strain 𝜖 (Greek letter epsilon), a dimensionless quantity,

in a rod under axial loading is the deformation per unit length of that rod.
The normal strain, also known as the axial strain is
𝜹
𝝐=
𝑳
Now, plotting the axial stress 𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴 against the axial strain 𝜖 =
𝛿/𝐿 results in a curve that is the characteristic of the properties of the
material but does not depend upon the dimension of the specimen used.
This curve is called a stress-strain diagram.

B. Stress-Strain Diagram
The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a load without undue deformation or failure.
This property is inherent in the material itself and must be determined by experiment. One of the most
important tests to perform in this regard is the tension or compression test.

1. Tensile Test

To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material, a tensile test is conducted on a specimen of the
material. One type of specimen is shown in Photo 1. The cross-sectional area of the cylindrical central
portion of the specimen is accurately determined and two gage marks are inscribed on that portion at a
distance L0 from each other. The distance L0 is known as the gage length of the specimen.

The test specimen is then placed in a testing machine (Photo 2), which is used to apply a centric load
P. As load P increases, the distance L between the two gage marks also increases (Photo 3). The distance
L is measured with a dial gage, and the elongation 𝛿 = 𝐿 − 𝐿𝑂 is recorded for each value of P.

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 2 of 8

 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending on their stress–strain
characteristics.

a. Ductile Material

Any material that can be subjected to large strains before its fractures is called a ductile
material. One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent elongation or percent
reduction in area at the time of fracture.
𝑳𝒇 − 𝑳𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎%)
𝑳𝟎
where:
𝐿0 = specimen’s original gauge length
𝐿𝑓 = specimen’s length at fracture

𝑨𝒇 − 𝑨𝟎
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = (𝟏𝟎𝟎%)
𝑨𝟎
where:
𝐴0 = specimen’s original cross-sectional area
𝐴𝑓 = specimen’s area of the neck at fracture

Conventional (Engineering) Stress-Strain Diagram vs True Stress-Strain Diagram

Proportional Limit and Hooke’s Law The stress–strain diagrams for most engineering materials
exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain within the elastic region. Consequently, an
increase in stress causes a proportionate increase in strain. This is given by the equation,

𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐

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F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

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where: 𝜎 = stress on the material

𝜖 = strain on the material
E = modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus, the slope in the elastic region (Pa or Psi)

Modulus of Elasticity is the ratio between stress and strain which has the same unit as stress.
It is essentially a measure of how stiff a material is.

Elastic Behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the specimen are within the light orange
region shown in Fig. 3. Here the curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this region, so that
the stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be linear elastic. The upper
stress limit to this linear relationship is called the proportional limit, 𝜎𝑝𝑙 . If the stress slightly exceeds
the proportional limit, the curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues until the stress
reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is removed the specimen will still return
back to its original shape.

Elastic Limit A material is said to be elastic if, after being loaded, the material returns to its original
shape when the load is removed. The elastic limit is, as its name implies, the stress beyond which the
material is no longer elastic.

Yielding of the material occurs a slight increase in stress above the elastic limit which result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently. Yielding is indicated by the rectangular
dark orange region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress or yield point,
𝜎𝑌 , and the deformation that occurs is called plastic deformation. Once the yield point is reached, the
specimen will continue to elongate (strain) without any increase in load. When the material is in this
state, it is often referred to as being perfectly plastic.

Strain Hardening is the rise in the curve (the region in light green in Fig. 3). When yielding has ended,
an increase in load can be supported by the specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but
becomes flatter until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress, 𝜎𝑢 .

Ultimate Stress The ultimate stress or ultimate strength, as it is often called, is the highest stress on
the stress-strain curve.

Necking is a mode of tensile deformation (the region in light green in Fig. 3). Up to the ultimate stress,
as the specimen elongates, its cross-sectional area will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over
the specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate stress, the cross-sectional
area will begin to decrease in a localized region of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or “neck”
tends to form in this region as the specimen elongates further, Fig. 4a. And then the stress–strain
diagram tends to curve downward until the specimen breaks at the fracture stress, 𝜎𝑓 .

Fracture Stress or Rupture Stress The rupture stress or rupture strength is the stress at which
failure occurs.

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 4 of 8

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CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

b. Brittle Material

Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to as brittle material.
Compared with the behavior in tension, brittle materials, exhibit a much higher resistance to axial
compression. Concrete is classified as a brittle material, and it also has a low strength capacity in
tension. The characteristics of its stress–strain diagram depend primarily on the mix of concrete
(water, sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and temperature of curing.

A typical failed specimen of a brittle material is shown in Fig. 5a. Compared with their behavior
in tension, they exhibit a much higher resistance to axial compression. For this case any cracks or
imperfections in the specimen tend to close up, and as the load increases the material will generally
bulge or become barrel shaped as the strains become larger, Fig. 5b.

2. Compression Test

If a specimen made of a ductile material is loaded in compression instead of tension, the stress-strain
curve is essentially the same through its initial straight-line portion and through the beginning of the portion
corresponding to yield and strain-hardening.

For larger values of the strain, the

tension and compression stress-strain
curves diverge, and necking does not
occur in compression. For most brittle
materials, the ultimate strength in
compression is much larger than in
tension. This is due to the presence of
flaws, such as microscopic cracks or
cavities that tend to weaken the material in
tension, while not appreciably affecting its
resistance to compressive failure.

An example of brittle material with

different properties in tension and
compression is provided by concrete,
whose stress-strain diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 5 of 8

 Republic of the Philippines
CAMARINES NORTE STATE COLLEGE
F. Pimentel Avenue, Brgy. 2, Daet, Camarines Norte – 4600, Philippines

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Failure of Materials Due to Creep and Fatigue

A member may have to be used in an environment for which loadings must be sustained over long
periods of time at elevated temperatures, or in other cases, the loading may be repeated or cycled.

Creep is the tendency of a solid material to move slowly or deform permanently under the influence
of persistent mechanical stresses. It can occur as a result of long-term exposure to high levels of stress that
are still below the yield strength of the material.

Fatigue occurs in metals when the stress or strain is cycled (subjected to a cyclic load). This
phenomenon causes brittle fracture of the material. Members are designed to resist fatigue by ensuring that
the stress in the member does not exceed its endurance or fatigue limit.

C. Poisson’s Ratio
When a homogeneous slender bar is axially loaded, the resulting
stress and strain satisfy Hooke’s law, as long as the elastic limit of the
material is not exceeded. Assuming that the load P is directed along the
x-axis (Fig. 7a), 𝜎𝑥 = 𝑃/𝐴, where A is the cross-sectional area of the bar,
and from Hooke’s law,
𝝐𝒙 = 𝝈𝒙 /𝑬
where: E = modulus of elasticity or young’s modulus

In all engineering materials, the elongation produced by an axial

tensile force P in the direction of the force is accompanied by a contraction
in any transverse direction (Fig. 8). It follows that the strain must have the
same value for any transverse direction. Therefore, the loading shown in
Fig. 7 must have 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 . This common value is the lateral strain. An
important constant for a given material is its Poisson’s ratio
(dimensionless quantity), denoted by the Greek letter 𝜈 (nu).

𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝝐 𝝐
𝝂=- 𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧
or 𝝂 = - 𝝐𝒚 = - 𝝐𝒛
𝒙 𝒙

The minus sign indicates that a positive strain (elongation) in the axial direction causes a negative strain
(contraction) in the transverse directions. The transverse strain is uniform throughout the cross section and
is the same in any direction in the plane of the cross section.

Shear Strain

Shear stress causes the deformation shown in Fig. 7. The

lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but the element
undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram. The shear
strain, which measures the amount of distortion, is the angle 𝛾 (Greek
gamma), always expressed in radians. It can be shown that the
relationship between shear stress 𝜏 and shear strain 𝛾 is linear within the
elastic range; that is,

Hooke’s Law for Shear: 𝝉 = 𝑮𝜸

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where: G = shear modulus of elasticity or shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (Pa or Psi)

𝑬
𝑮=
𝟐(𝟏 + 𝝂)

D. Elastic Deformation under Axial Loading

To determine the elastic displacement of a member (considering a bar as a general) subjected to
axial loads: (See Fig. 1)
𝑷𝑳
𝜹=
𝑨𝑬
where:
𝛿 = displacement of one point on the bar relative to the other point
𝑃 = internal axial force at the section, located at a distance 𝑥 from one end
𝐿 = original length of a member
𝐴 = cross-sectional area of the bar
𝐸 = modulus of elasticity for the material

Statically Indeterminate Axially Loaded Member

Consider the bar shown in Fig. 10a which is fixed supported at both of its ends. From the free-body
diagram, Fig. 10b, equilibrium requires
+↑ ∑ 𝐹 = 0: 𝑭𝑩 + 𝑭𝑨 − 𝑷 = 𝟎

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This type of problems is called statically indeterminate, since the equilibrium equation(s) are not
sufficient to determine the two reactions on the bar.

Procedure for Solving Statically Indeterminate Problems

The solution of a statically indeterminate problem involves the following steps:

1. Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of equilibrium.
2. Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on deformation, it is often helpful to
draw a sketch that exaggerates the magnitudes of the deformations.
3. Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the compatibility equations in terms of forces
(or stresses).
4. Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown forces.

E. Elastic Deformation under Axial Loading

A change in temperature can cause a body to change its dimensions. Generally, if the temperature
increases, the body will expand, whereas if the temperature decreases, it will contract. Ordinarily this
expansion or contraction is linearly related to the temperature increase or decrease that occurs. If this is the
case, and the material is homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found from experiment that the
displacement of a member having a length L can be calculated using the formula:

𝜹𝑻 = 𝜶∆𝑻𝑳

where:
𝛼 = a property of the material, referred to as the linear coefficient of thermal expansion.
The units measure strain per degree of temperature. (1/°F and 1/°C or 1/K)
∆𝑇 = the algebraic change in temperature of the member
𝐿 = the original length of the member
𝛿𝑇 = the algebraic change in the length of the member

MECH 3 – Mechanics of Deformable Bodies Page 8 of 8