CHAPTER TWO

TRADITIONAL
MACHINING PROCESSES
 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINING PROCESS

 Modern manufacturing encompasses an ever-

increasing variety of processes and the engineer's
challenge is to select the most economic combination
of processes to make a high quality product at the
right price.
 Products range from high priced items made in low
volume such as jet engines to everyday items such as
razor blades which are made in their millions.
 To meet this challenge the manufacturing engineer
needs to have a broad knowledge of the ways in which
materials can be processed, and the shapes which can
be formed by these processes
MACHINING PROCESS
 Obviously, the term machining deals with any process
in which material is removed gradually from a work
piece, including metal cutting with both single-point
or multi-point tools (tools with geometrically defined
cutting edges) and grinding with abrasive wheels
which consists of a large number of micro-cutting
edges, randomly shaped and oriented, i.e. tools with
geometrically undefined cutting edges .
 In the engineering industry, the term machining is
used to cover chip-forming operations resulting in
mass reducing.
MACHINING PROCESS
 Machining or Secondary Processes is removal Processes
from Primary Shaping Processes products of an
amorphous/formless or shapeless material, like Products of
(Casting, Powder metallurgy, Plastic technology, Gas
cutting, bending and Forging).
 Machining is not just one process ; it is a group of process.
The common feature is the use of a cutting tool to form a
chip that is removed from the work part.
 To perform the operation, relative motion is required
between the tool and work. This relative motion is achieved
in most machining operations by means of a primary
motion, called the cutting speed, and a secondary motion,
called the feed.
 The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work
surface, combined with these motions, produces the desired
geometry of the resulting work surface.
 MACHINING PROCESS
 The narrower term cutting is intended to include
operations in which a thin layer of material, the chip
is removed by a wedge-shaped tool. .
 In general, material removal in machining processes
can be based on four fundamental removal methods,
which refer to the relationship between the
imprinting of the information and the energy supply.
 Table 2.1 shows the classification of mass-reducing
processes in terms of the process category (the type of
energy supplied) and the method of material removal.
 MACHINING PROCESS
 Group I in the mechanical category covers many popular
conventional cutting processes, known also as machining
processes with geometrically defined cutting edges.
 Other processes, which utilize mechanical, thermal and
chemical energy (groups II and III which utilize highly
concentrated energy beams or metal removal by dissolving
or evaporating), are classified as non-conventional (non-
traditional) machining processes.
 There is no sharp line separating chip-forming operations
from others such as shearing, blanking and punching (case
IV in the mechanical category) which are commonly
classified as metal-forming operations.
MACHINING PROCESS

Classification of Machining process

Material removal process can be classified as:
 Conventional(traditional) machining

 Abrasive machining

 Non-conventional (non traditional )machining

MACHINING PROCESS

Conventional(traditional) machining
 The most important branch of machining process
is conventional(traditional) Machining, in which
sharp cutting tool is used to mechanically cut the
material to achieve the desired geometry.
 The three principal machining processes are
turning, drilling, and milling. The ‘‘other
machining operations’’ include shaping, planning,
broaching, and sawing.
MACHINING PROCESS

Abrasive machining
 Another group of material removal processes is the
abrasive processes, which mechanically remove
material by the action of hard, abrasive particles.
 This process group, which includes grinding, the
‘‘other abrasive processes’’ include honing, lapping,
and super finishing.
Non-conventional (non traditional )machining
 Finally, there are the non-traditional processes,
which use various energy forms other than a sharp
cutting tool or abrasive particles to remove material.
 The energy forms include mechanical,
electrochemical, thermal, and chemical.
MACHINING PROCESS
 Classification of material removal process is
summarized as follows.
MACHINING PROCESS
Purpose of Machining
 Most of the engineering components such as gears,
bearings, clutches, tools, screws and nuts etc. need
dimensional and form accuracy and good surface
finish for serving their purposes.
 Performing like casting, forging etc. generally cannot
provide the desired accuracy and finish. For that such
preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing
and finishing and it is done by machining and
grinding. Grinding is also basically a machining
process.
 Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially
enables a product to :
- fulfill its functional requirements
- improve its performance
- prolong its service
MACHINING PROCESS
Machining is important commercially and technolo-
gically for several reasons:
 Variety of work materials
 Variety of part shapes and geometric features
 Dimensional accuracy
 Good surface finishes
On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated
with machining and other material removal processes:
 Wasteful of material
 Time consuming Machining is generally performed
after other manufacturing processes such as casting
or bulk deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing).
 The method is expensive in terms of labor and capital.
CONVENTIONAL(TRADITIONAL) MACHINING

Machining operations represent the most

versatile and most common manufacturing
processes.
These processes are used to shape parts of such
materials like :
 metals,

 plastics,

 Ceramic and

 wood.
CONVENTIONAL(TRADITIONAL) MACHINING

Traditional/Chip producing machines or

conventional Machines process are machine
tools which form metal to size and shape by
cutting away the unwanted sections as the form
of chips.
E.g. Lathe, Milling, boring, broaching, turning etc...
PRINCIPLE OF MACHINING
 The basic principle of machining is typically
illustrated in Figure below.
PRINCIPLE OF MACHINING
 A metal rod of irregular shape, size and surface is
converted into a finished rod of desired dimension
and surface by machining/metal cutting by
proper relative motions of the tool work pair.
 MACHINING REQUIREMENTS

The essential basic requirements for machining

work are schematically illustrated in Fig. 2.2
 The blank and the cutting tool are properly
mounted (in fixtures) and moved in a powerful
device called machine tool enabling gradual
removal of layer of material from the work
surface resulting in its desired dimensions and
surface finish. Additionally some environment
called cutting fluid is generally used to ease
machining by cooling and lubrication.
MACHINING REQUIREMENTS
 MACHINE TOOLS

Machine Tool definition

 A machine tool is a non-portable power operated
and reasonably valued device or system of
devices in which energy is expended to produce
jobs of desired size, shape and surface finish by
removing excess material from the preformed
blanks in the form of chips with the help of
cutting tools moved past the work surface(s).
 The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming and press working
operations.
 MACHINE TOOLS
 The traditional machine tools used to perform
turning, drilling, and milling are lathes, drill
presses, and milling machines, respectively.
 Conventional machine tools are usually tended
by a human operator, who loads and unloads the
work parts, changes cutting tools, and sets the
cutting conditions.
 Many modern machine tools are designed to
accomplish their operations with a form of
automation called computer numerical control.
 MACHINE TOOLS
Basic functions of Machine tools
The followings are basic components and function of
machine tool:
 Devices for firmly holding the tool and work
 Drives for providing power and motions to the tool
and work
 Kinematic system to transmit motion and power from
the sources to the tool-work
 Automation and control systems
 Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed
and depth of cut.
 Structural body to support and accommodate those
systems with sufficient strength and rigidity.
 MACHINE TOOLS
Classification of Machine Tools
a) By their application
1.General-purpose or universal machines used
to work a wide range of parts. (Machines used for a
particularly wide range of work are known as
multipurpose.) e.g.
Lathe Drilling machine
Shaping machine Planning machine
Milling machine Sawing machine.
2. Specialized machines used for article similar
in shape but different in size.
 MACHINE TOOLS
3. Limited-purpose machines capable of a
narrow range of operations on a wide variety of
work pieces.
4. Special-purpose machines for making parts
of one type and size.
E.g.
 Special lathes like capstan, turret and copying
lathes
 Boring machine
 Production milling machine
 Broaching machine
 Production drilling machine.
 MACHINE TOOLS
b) By their accuracy
Machine tools are divided into five classes according
to accuracy:
Class N — machines of normal accuracy, covering the
majority of general- purpose machines;
Class H— machines of higher accuracy, built on the
basis of class N machines but with finer tolerances in
the machining of essential parts and more accurate
assembly and adjustment;
Class P— precision machines with specially designed
individual assemblies manufactured with the
tolerances of quality in the machining of their parts;
Class A — high precision machines, built according to
even more rigorous standards of accuracy than Class
P machines;
 MACHINE TOOLS
Class. S -super-high precision machines, or master
machine tools, used for machining the essential
part determining the precision of Class A and P
machine tools.
To ensure the necessary accuracy in operation,
machine tools of Classes P, A and S are installed
in environmental enclosures with automatically
controlled (constant) temperature and humidity.
 MACHINE TOOLS
c) By their weight
As to weight, machine tools are classifed as
 light (up to one ton),

 medium (up to ten tons) or

 heavy (over ten tons).

 Heavy machines, in turn, fall into three weights:

10-30 tons, 30-100 tons, and over 100 tons.

 MACHINE TOOLS
 Machine tools may be classified under three main
categories depend on :
 Conventional /chip producing machine tools,
 Non-conventional /non-chip producing machine
tools, and
 The new generation of machine tools, which may
be chip or non-chip producing tools.
Multi-tasking machines
CONCEPT OF GENERATRIX AND DIRECTRIX

Generation of flat surface: The principle is shown in

Fig. below, where on a flat plain a straight line called
Generatrix (G) is traversed in a perpendicular direction
called Directrix (D) resulting a flat surface.
CONCEPT OF GENERATRIX AND DIRECTRIX
Generation of cylindrical surfaces
The principles of production of various cylindrical surfaces (of
revolution) are shown in Fig. 2.3, where, ⎯ A long straight
cylindrical surface is obtained by a circle (G) being traversed in
the direction (D) parallel to the axis as shown in Fig. 2.3(a) ⎯ A
cylindrical surface of short length is obtained by traversing a
straight line (G) along a circular path (D) as indicated in Fig.
2.3(b) ⎯ Form cylindrical surfaces by rotating a curved line (G)
in a circular path (D) as indicated in Fig. 2.3
CONCEPT OF GENERATRIX AND DIRECTRIX

Figure 2.3
 TOOL – WORK MOTIONS

 The lines representing the Generatrix and Directrix are

usually produced by the locus of a point moving in two
different directions and are actually obtained by the
motions of the tool-tip (point) relative to the work surface.
 Hence, for machining flat or curved surfaces the machine
tools need relative tool work motions, which are categorized
in following two groups:
1. Formative motions namely ⎯ Cutting motion (CM) ⎯ Feed
motion (FM)
2. Auxiliary motions such as ⎯ Indexing motion ⎯ Additional
feed motion ⎯ Relieving motion
 The Generatrix and Directrix, tool and the work and their
motions generally remain interconnected and in different
way for different machining work. Such interconnections
are typically shown in Fig. 2.4 for straight turning and in
Fig. 2.5 for shaping.
 TOOL – WORK MOTIONS
The connections in case of straight longitudinal turning shown in Fig. 2.5 (a) are:
 Generatrix (G) – Cutting motion (CM) – Work (W)

 Directrix (D) – Feed motion (FM) – Tool (T)

Fig. 2.4
 TOOL – WORK MOTIONS
 In case of making flat surface in a shaping machine as shown in Fig. 2.6
the connections are: Generatrix (G)– Cutting Motion – Tool Directrix
(D) – Feed Motion – Work. Which indicates that in shaping flat surfaces
the Generatrix is provided by the cutting motion imparted to the cutting
tool and the Directrix is provided by the feed motion of the work.

Fig 2.5
 MECHANICS OF MACHINING

 Machining is a manufacturing process in which a

sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to
leave the desired part shape.
 The predominant cutting action in machining
involves shear deformation of the work material
to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new
surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently
applied to shape metals.
 MECHANICS OF MACHINING

Figure 2.6- (a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process,

(b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake
angle in (a)
 MECHANICS OF MACHINING

 Chip formation is mostly caused by plastic deformation.

 During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work
material just ahead of the cutting tool (edge) is subjected to
almost all sided compression as indicated in Figure below.
 MECHANICS OF MACHINING

 The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises

out of the normal force, N and frictional force, F
 A chip of material is removed from the surface of
the work piece.
 The Principal Parameters are :
-The cutting Speed v,
-Depth of cut w or d and
-feed f.
 The machining time (t)is equal to:
𝐿
t=
𝑓𝑛
Where, L-is length, f-feed and n-is number of
revolution of work piece per second.
 MACHINING TECHNOLOGY

 Machining is not just one process; it is a group of

processes.
 The common feature is the use of a cutting tool to
form a chip that is removed from the work part.
 To perform the operation, relative motion is
required between the tool and work. This relative
motion is achieved in most machining operations
by means of a primary motion, called the cutting
speed, and a secondary motion, called the feed.
 The shape of the tool and its penetration into the
work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired geometry of the resulting
work surface.
 MACHINING TECHNOLOGY

There are many kinds of machining operations, each of

which is capable of generating a certain part geometry
and surface texture.
 In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is
used to remove material from a rotating work piece to
generate a cylindrical shape, as in Figure (a).The
speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating
work part, and the feed motion is achieved by the
cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to
the axis of rotation of the work piece.
 Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is
accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two
cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to
its axis of rotation into the work part to form the
round hole, as in Figure (b).
 MACHINING TECHNOLOGY

 In milling a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed

slowly across the work material to generate a plane or straight
surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to
the tool’s axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by
the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are
peripheral milling and face milling, as in Figure (c) and (d).
 Other conventional machining operations include shaping,
planning, broaching, and sawing. Also, grinding and similar
abrasive operations are often included within the category of
machining. These processes commonly follow the
conventional machining operations and are used to achieve a
superior surface finish on the work part.
MACHINING TECHNOLOGY
ORTHOGONAL VS OBLIQUE CUTTING

Based on the position of cutting edge of the cutting tool,

cutting operation is classified as:
 Orthogonal Cutting and

 Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal cutting
 also known as two dimensional metal cutting

 cutting edge is normal to the work piece.

 chip flows along orthogonal plane

 no force exists in direction perpendicular to relative

motion between tool and work piece
ORTHOGONAL VS OBLIQUE CUTTING

Oblique cutting
 the common type of three dimensional cutting used
in various metal cutting operation
 the cutting action is inclined with the job by a certain
angle called the inclination angle.
 chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane
ORTHOGONAL VS OBLIQUE CUTTING
ROUGHING VS. FINISHING IN MACHINING
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from
the starting work part
 Creates shape close to desired geometry, but leaves
some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry
 Achieves final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CHIP IN
MACHINING
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip
 Segmented Chip
 Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of
cut
 High tool-chip friction

(a) segmented
 Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge on
the tool
 Low tool-chip friction

(b) continuous
 Continuous with
BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to adhere to
rake face
 BUE formation is cyclical; it
forms, then breaks off

(c) continuous with built-up

edge
 Serrated Chip
 Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
 Most closely associated
with difficult-to-
machine metals at high
cutting speeds

(d) serrated
CUTTING TOOL CLASSIFICATION
1. Single-Point Tools
 One cutting edge
 Turning uses single point tools
 Point is usually rounded to form a nose radius
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work usually achieved by
rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating multiple cutting
edge tools.
Figure 21.4 - (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool
point; and (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with
multiple cutting edges
CONTINUE……