November 2, 2023

Advanced Metal Cutting Technology– (MAT-514)

UNIT - ONE
MATERIAL AND GEOMETRY OF
CUTTING TOOLS

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By ： Yemane Z. (PhD)

Manufacturing Technology Department

1. Material and Geometry of cutting tools

 Machining operations are accomplished using cutting tools.

 The high forces and temperatures during machining
creates very harsh environment for the tool.
 If cutting force becomes too high, the tool fractures.
 If cutting temperature becomes too high, the tool material
softens and fails.
 If neither of these conditions causes the tool to fail,
continual wear of the cutting edge ultimately leads to
failure.
 Cutting tool technology has two principal aspects: tool
material and tool geometry. 2
1.1 Introduction

 The material removal processes are a family of shaping

operations in which excess material is removed from a
starting work part so that what remains is the desired
final geometry.
 The ‘‘family tree’’ is shown in the next slide.
 The most important branch of the family is conventional
machining, in which a sharp cutting tool is used to
mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired
geometry.
 The three principal machining processes are turning,
drilling, and milling.
 The ‘‘other machining operations’’ include shaping,3
planning, broaching, and sawing.
 Fig . Classification of manufacturing processes.

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 Fig . Classification of material removal
processes.
 Cont...

 Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp

cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave the
desired part shape.
 The predominant cutting action in machining involves
shear deformation of the work material to form a chip; as
the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
 Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.

 Fig. (a) A cross-sectional

view of the machining
process. (b) Tool with
negative rake angle;
compare with positive rake
angle in (a).

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 Cont...
 Machining is important commercially and technologically
for several reasons: (Advantages)
 Variety of work materials
 Variety of part shapes and geometric features
 Dimensional accuracy (+/- 0.025mm or +/- 0.001in)
 Good surface finishes (Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 -in.) )
 Disadvantages of machining and other material removal
processes:
 Wasteful of material
 Time consuming
 Machining is generally performed after other
manufacturing processes such as casting or bulk6
deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing).
1.2 Machining Process
 Machining is the most versatile and accurate of all
manufacturing processes in its capability to produce a
diversity of part geometries and geometric features.
 Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks
the precision and accuracy of machining.
 Machining is not just one process; it is a group of
processes.
 The common feature is the use of a cutting tool to form a
chip that is removed from the workpart.
 To perform the operation, relative motion is required
between the tool and work.
 This relative motion is achieved in most machining
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operations by means of a primary motion, called the
cutting speed, and a secondary motion, called the feed.
 Cont...

 The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work
surface, combined with these motions, produces the desired
geometry of the resulting work surface.
 Types of Machining Operations:- The three most common
types are: turning, drilling, and milling.

 Fig . The three most

common types of
machining processes:
(a) turning, (b)
drilling, and two
forms of milling: (c)
peripheral milling,
and (d) face milling.

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 Other conventional machining operations include shaping,
planning, broaching, and sawing.
 Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often
included within the category of machining.

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1.3 Cutting tool Classification
 A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is
made of a material that is harder than the work material.
 The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent
work material.
 Connected to the cutting edge are two surfaces of the tool:
the rake face and the flank.
 The rake face, which directs the flow of the newly formed
chip, is oriented at a certain angle called the rake angle α.
It is measured relative to a plane perpendicular to the
work surface. The rake angle can be positive, or negative.
 The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool
and the newly generated work surface, thus protecting the
surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. 10
This flank surface is oriented at an angle called the relief
angle.
 Cont...

 Most cutting tools in practice have more complex

geometries.
 There are two basic types:
a) Single-point tools and
b) Multiple-cutting-edge tools.
 A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for
operations such as turning. The point is usually rounded to
a certain radius, called the nose radius.
 Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting
edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the
workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling use rotating
multiple-cutting-edge tools.
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 Fig . (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.

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1.4 Properties of cutting tool materials
 The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three
important properties required in a tool material:
 Toughness;
 Toughness is the capacity of a material to absorb energy without
failing. It is usually characterized by a combination of strength
and ductility in the material.
 Hot hardness;
 Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at
high temperatures.
 Wear resistance.
 So that an acceptable tool life is obtained before replacement is
necessary. Hardness is the single most important property 13
needed to resist abrasive wear.
  Chemical stability and inertness with respect to the
material being machined, to avoid or minimize any adverse
reactions, adhesion, and tool–chip diffusion that would
contribute to tool wear.
 Cutting-tool materials achieve this combination of
properties in varying degrees.

Cutting Tool Materials

 The most Common Cutting-tool materials are:-

(1) Carbon and low alloy steels;
(2) High-speed steel (HHS);
(3) Cemented carbides;
(4) Ceramic or oxide tools;
(5) Diamond;
(6) Cast cobalt alloys;
(7) Coated Tools;
(8) Cubic boron nitride;
(9) Whisker-reinforced Materials
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and Nano materials. .
  Commercially, the most important tool materials are high-
speed steel and cemented carbides, cermets and coated
carbides.
 These two categories account for more than 90% of the
cutting tools used in machining operations.

 Fig. Typical hot hardness

relationships for selected tool
materials.
 Plain carbon steel shows a
rapid loss of hardness as
temperature increases.
 High-speed steel is
substantially better, whereas
cemented carbides and
ceramics are significantly 15
harder at elevated
temperatures.
 Table. Cutting-tool materials with their approximate dates of initial use and
allowable cutting speeds.
 Non steel cutting refers to easy-to-machine metals such as
aluminum, brass, and cast iron.
 Steel cutting refers to the machining of mild (unhardened)
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steel.
 Cont...

 (1) Carbon and low alloy steels

 Carbon steels are the oldest tool materials and have been
used widely for drills, taps, broaches, and reamers since
the 1880s.
 Low-alloy and medium-alloy steels were developed later
for similar applications but with longer tool life.
 Although inexpensive and easily shaped and sharpened,
these steels do not have sufficient hot hardness and wear
resistance for cutting at high speeds when the temperature
rises significantly.
 Their use is limited to very low speed cutting operations,
particularly in wood working; hence, they are not of any
particular significance in modern machining operations. 17
 (2) High speed steels (HSS)
 High-speed steel (HSS) is a highly alloyed tool steel capable
of maintaining hardness at elevated temperatures(at least
100ºC for liquids or 240ºC for solids ) better than high carbon and low
alloy steels.
 It’s good hot hardness permits tools made of HSS to be
used at higher cutting speeds.
 Compared with the other tool materials at the time of its
development, it was truly deserving of its name ‘‘high
speed.’’
 A wide variety of high-speed steels are available, but they
can be divided into two basic types: (1) Tungsten-type,
designated T-grades; and (2) Molybdenum-type, 18
designated M-grades.
 Commercially, high-speed steel is one of the most
important cutting-tool materials in use today, despite the
fact that it was introduced more than a century ago.
 HSS is especially suited to applications involving
complicated tool geometries, such as drills, taps, milling
cutters, and broaches.
 These complex shapes are generally easier and less
expensive to produce from unhardened HSS than other
tool materials.
 They can then be heat-treated so that cutting-edge
hardness is very good (Rockwell C 65), whereas toughness
of the internal portions of the tool is also good.
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 Table. Typical contents and functions of alloying elements in high-speed steel.

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 (3) Cemented carbide
 Cemented carbides (also called sintered carbides) are a
class of hard tool material formulated from tungsten
carbide (WC) using powder metallurgy techniques with
cobalt (Co) as the binder.
 There may be other carbide compounds in the mixture,
such as titanium carbide (TiC) and/or tantalum carbide
(TaC), in addition to WC.
 Cemented carbides are divided in to two basic types:
 (1) Non-steel-cutting grades, consisting of only WC–Co; and
 (2) Steel-cutting grades, with combinations of TiC and TaC
added to the WC–Co.
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 The general properties of the two types of cemented
carbides are similar:
 (1) High compressive strength but low-to-moderate tensile
strength;
 (2) high hardness (90 to 95HRA);
 (3) good hot hardness;
 (4) good wear resistance;
 (5) high thermal conductivity;
 (6) high modulus of elasticity—E values up to around
600x103MPa (90x106lb/in2); and
 (7) toughness lower than high-speed steel.
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  Table. The ANSI C-grade classification system for cemented carbides

 Table. ISO R513-1975(E) ‘‘Application of Carbides for Machining by Chip Removal.’’

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 (4) Ceramic or oxide tools
 Today’s ceramic cutting tools are composed primarily of
fine-grained aluminum oxide (Al2O3), pressed and sintered
at high pressures and temperatures with no binder into
insert form.
 Aluminum oxide cutting tools are most successful in high-
speed turning of cast iron and steel.
 When properly applied, ceramic cutting tools can be used
to obtain very good surface finish.
 Ceramics are not recommended for heavy interrupted cut
operations (e.g., rough milling) because of their low
toughness. 24
 In addition to its use as inserts in conventional machining
operations, Al2O3 is widely used as an abrasive in grinding
and other abrasive processes.
 Other commercially available ceramic cutting-tool
materials include silicon nitride (SiN), sialon (silicon
nitride and aluminum oxide, SiN–Al2O3), aluminum oxide
and titanium carbide (Al2O3–TiC), and aluminum oxide
reinforced with single crystal-whiskers of silicon carbide.

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 (5) Diamond
 Of all known materials, the hardest substance is diamond.
 As a cutting tool, it has highly desirable properties, such as
low friction, high wear resistance, and the ability to
maintain a sharp cutting edge.
 Diamond is used when a good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy are required.
 Synthetic or industrial diamonds are widely used because
natural diamond has flaws and its performance can be
unpredictable, as is the case with abrasives used in
grinding wheels.
 Single-crystal diamonds of various carats can be used for
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special applications.
 Diamond is brittle, so tool shape and sharpness are
important.
 Diamond tools can be used satisfactorily at almost any
speed, but are most suitable for light, uninterrupted
finishing cuts.
 Because of its strong chemical affinity at elevated
temperatures, diamond is not recommended for machining
plain-carbon steels or titanium, nickel, and cobalt-based
alloys.
 Diamond also is used as an abrasive in grinding and
polishing operations and as coatings.
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 (6) Cast-cobalt Alloys
 Cast cobalt alloy cutting tools consist of cobalt, around
40% to 50%; chromium, about 25% to 35%; and tungsten,
usually 15% to 20%; with trace amounts of other elements.
 These tools are made into the desired shape by casting in
graphite molds and then grinding to final size and cutting-
edge sharpness.
 High hardness is achieved as cast, an advantage over HSS,
which requires heat treatment to achieve its hardness.
 Wear resistance of the cast cobalt’s is better than high-
speed steel, but not as good as cemented carbide.
 Toughness of cast cobalt tools is better than carbides but
not as good as HSS. Hot hardness also lies between these
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two materials.
 Applications of cast cobalt tools are generally between
those of high-speed steel and cemented carbides.
 They are capable of heavy roughing cuts at speeds greater
than HSS and feeds greater than carbides.
 Work materials include both steels and non-steels, as well
as non-metallic materials such as plastics and graphite.
 Today, cast cobalt alloy tools are not nearly as important
commercially as either high-speed steel or cemented
carbides.

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 ( 7) Coated Tools
 New alloys and engineered materials are being developed
continuously with high strength and toughness, but
generally are abrasive and chemically reactive with tool
materials.
 The difficulty of machining these materials efficiently and
the need for improving their performance in machining the
more common engineering materials have led to important
developments in coated tools.
 Coatings have unique properties, such as
 Lower friction
 Higher adhesion
 Higher resistance to wear and cracking
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 Acting as a diffusion barrier
 Higher hot hardness and impact resistance
 Coated tools can have lives 10 times longer than those of
uncoated tools, allowing for high cutting speeds and thus
reducing both the time required for machining operations
and production costs.
 As a result, coated tools now are used in 40 to 80% of all
machining operations, particularly turning, milling, and
drilling.

 Fig. Relative time

required to machine
with various cutting-
tool materials,
indicating the year
the tool materials
were first
introduced.
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Coating Materials and Coating Methods
Commonly used coating materials are titanium nitride
(TiN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium carbo-nitride (TiCN),
and aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
These coatings, generally in the thickness range from 2 to
15m (80 to 600in), are applied on cutting tools and inserts
by two coating techniques:
Chemical-vapor deposition (CVD), including plasma-
assisted chemical-vapor deposition.
Physical-vapor deposition (PVD).
The CVD process is the most commonly used method for
carbide tools with multi-phase and ceramic coatings.
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 However, the PVD-coated carbides with TiN coatings have
higher cutting-edge strength, lower friction, and a lower
tendency to form a built-up edge, and are smoother and
more uniform in thickness (which is generally in the range
from 2 to 4m).
 Another technology (used particularly for multi-phase
coatings) is medium-temperature chemical-vapor
deposition (MTCVD), developed to machine ductile iron
and stainless steels and to provide higher resistance to
crack propagation than CVD coatings provide.

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 Characteristics of Coatings for cutting tools and dies:
 High hardness at elevated temperatures, to resist wear
 Chemical stability and inertness to the workpiece material, to
reduce wear
 Low thermal conductivity, to prevent temperature rise in the
substrate
 Compatibility and good bonding to the substrate, to prevent
flaking or spalling
 Little or no porosity in the coating, to maintain its integrity and
strength.
 The effectiveness of coatings is enhanced by the hardness,
toughness, and high thermal conductivity of the substrate
(which may be carbide or high-speed steel).
 Honing of the cutting edges is an important procedure for34

the maintenance of coating strength; otherwise, the coating

may peel or chip off at sharp edges and corners.
 Typical applications of multiple-coated tools are as follows
(Multiphase Coatings):
1. High-speed, continuous cutting: TiC/Al2O3
2. Heavy-duty, continuous cutting: TiC/Al2O3/TiN
3. Light, interrupted cutting: Tic/TiC + TiN/TiN
 Fig. Multiphase
coatings on a tungsten-
carbide substrate.
Three alternating
layers of aluminum
oxide are separated by
very thin layers of
titanium nitride.
Coating thicknesses
are typically in the
range from 2 to 10m.
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 Titanium carbo-nitride (TiCN) and titanium-aluminum
nitride (TiAlN) are effective in cutting stainless steels.
 Other new materials include zirconium nitride (ZrN) and
hafnium nitride (HfN).

 (8) Cubic Boron Nitride

 Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is the hardest
material available.
 Cubic boron nitride is made by bonding a 0.5-to-1-mm
layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide
substrate by sintering under high pressure and high
temperature.
 While the carbide provides shock resistance, the cBN layer
provides very high wear resistance and cutting-edge 36
strength.
 (9) Whisker-reinforced Materials and Nano-materials
 In order to further improve the performance and wear
resistance of cutting tools, continued progress is being
made in developing new tool materials with enhanced
properties such as the following:
 High fracture toughness
 Resistance to thermal shock
 Cutting-edge strength
 Creep resistance
 Hot hardness.
 Advances include the use of whiskers as reinforcing fibers
in composite cutting-tool materials. 37
 Examples of whisker-reinforced cutting tools include (a)
silicon-nitride-based tools reinforced with silicon-carbide
whiskers and (b) aluminum-oxide-based tools reinforced
with 25 to 40% silicon-carbide whiskers, sometimes with
the addition of zirconium oxide (ZrO2).
 Silicon-carbide whiskers are typically 5 to 100m long and
0.1 to 1m in diameter.
 Nanomaterials are also becoming important in advanced
cutting-tool materials.
 Suitable nanomaterials are carbides and ceramics.
 Often, nano-materials are applied as a thin coating, usually
in an attempt to obtain a reasonable tool life without the
use of a coolant or to machine at high speeds. 38
Next Session…

Tool life determination

Tool Geometry

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Thank you for your attention!

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MILLING

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