CHAPTER-2 METAL REMOVAL TOOLS

Single-point cutting tools

Objective: To remove greatest amount of material in the shortest length of time consistent with finish
requirements, work and tool rigidity, available power of the machine, and relative cost of labour and
cutting tools.
In design of a single point cutting tool the following factors are to be considered.

i) Type of work piece material and tool material;

ii) Type of operation and surface finish required;
iii) Optimum tool angles;
iv) Permissible cutting speed, feed and depth of cut;
v) Cutting forces
vi) Condition of holding the work:
a) Work held as a cantilever;
b) Work held in between two centers, both of which can be live or one live and the other dead.
c) Work held in chuck and tailstock centre.
Vii) Overhung of the tool from the tool post;
viii) Accuracy of the work in terms of permissible deflection (maximum) of job with respect to the
tool.

Figure 1: Various turning operations

Speed, Feed and Depth of cut are the primary parameter deciding the metal removal rate in
machining.
Tool nomenclature
A single-point tool contains several geometric elements that are classified and defined by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) B94.50-1975 (R1986), Single-Point Cutting Tools,
Basic Nomenclature and Definitions for.

A typical single-point carbide-tipped turning tool is shown in Fig. 7.3, and the angles shown are
normal, that is, taken with reference to the cutting edges,
The shank is that part of the tool on one end of which the point is formed or the tip or bit is supported.
It is supported on the tool post of the machine.
The base is that surface of the shank which bears against the support and takes the tangential pressure
of the cut.
The face is the surface on which the chip apparently impinges as it is separated from the work piece.
It may be provided with a narrow land ground along the cutting edge to support the built up edge.
The tool point is all that part of the tool which is shaped to produce the cutting edges and face.
The cutting edge is the portion of the face edge along which the chip is separated from the work
piece. It consists usually of the side-cutting edge, the nose, and the end-cutting edge.
The nose is the corner, arc, or chamfer joining the side-cutting and the end-cutting edges.
The flank of the tool is the surface or surfaces below and adjacent to the cutting edge.
The tool angles shown in Fig. 7.4 are defined as follows:

Back-rake angle The angle between the face of the tool and the base of the shank or holder. It is
positive if the face slopes downward from the point toward the shank, tending to reduce the included
angle of the tool point. It is negative if the face slopes upward toward the shank.
Side-rake angle The angle between the face of the tool and the base of the shank or holder. It is
usually measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and to the side-cutting edge and hence is
normal side rake.
Side-relief angle The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side-cutting
edge and a line drawn through this cutting edge perpendicular to the base.
End-relief angle The angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end-cutting
edge and a line drawn through that cutting edge perpendicular to the base.
Clearance angle The angle between a plane perpendicular to the base of the tool or holder and that
portion of the flank immediately below the relieved flank.
Side-cutting-edge angle The angle between the straight side cutting edge and the side of the tool
shank or holder.
End-cutting-edge angle The angle between the cutting edge on the end of the tool and a line at right
angles to the side of the tool shank.

Tool signature= BRA-SRA-ERELA-SRELA-ECEA-SCEA-NR

SCEA varies from 0-90°. Increasing the side cutting edge angle decreases the thickness of the chip
and increases its width. For a given depth of cut, the material will be spread over a greater cutting
surface. If the angle becomes too large a point may be reached where chatter will result because of
exclusive tool-contact area.
ECEA End Cutting Edge Angle prevents rubbing between the end of the tool and the work piece.
Angles of 4° or less tend to cause vibration.
The End Rel Angle and Side Rel Angle prevent rubbing below the cutting edge. Rel Angle is 5-15°
for turning. Small relief angles give maximum support below the cutting edge and are necessary
when machining hard and strong materials. Increased relief angles reduce the forces required to
penetrate the work piece material and cut more efficiently.
The +ve Back rake angle tends to move the chip away from the machined work piece surface. While
a -ve back rake tends to move the chip toward the machined work piece surface. Cutting efficiency is
best with +ve rake angles.
Negative rake angles are most effective when used with tool materials capable of machining at high
speeds. Use –ve rake for machining high-strength alloys. Use –ve rake for interrupted cuts and heavy
feed rates

Single point cutting tools design

Calculation of Tool Cross Section

Figure 4.4: Cutting Tool Cross Section

The shank of a cutting tool is generally analyzed for strength and rigidity. The tool is assumed to be
loaded as a cantilever by tool forces at the cutting edge as shown in Figure 4.4. The deflection at the
cutting edge is limited to a certain value depending on the size of the machine, cutting conditions and
tool overhung. The tool overhung (Le) is related also to the shank size as well as to end fixing
conditions. The recommended value of (Le/ H) is between 1.2 and 2. The common value for Le is 25
to 40 mm.
Checking for strength:
We know that the bending moment due to cutting force Pz is equal to Pz X Le at the tool post. If the
height and width of cutting tool are H and B respectively, then
Pz Le = 1/6 BH2σ1
Where, σ1= tensile stress induced in the cutting tool body
= 6 Pz Le / BH2
If the effect of Px is also included, then it becomes a case for unsymmetrical bending.

Where, σ is permissible stress for cutting tool material = σ ut / factor of safety

σ ut = ultimate tensile strength of cutting tool materials
= 1000 N / mm2 for HSS
= 700 N / mm2 for HCS
Factor of safety = 10 for rough machining
= 4 for finish machining

The Standard Cutting Tool Cross Section:

Figure 4.5: Types of Cutting Tool Cross section

The numerical values obtained for height and width of cutting tool from above equation should be
standardized as per BIS specification and given below
Checking for deflection of the tool:
The deflection of tool tip due to cutting force, Pz is given as
δ = (4 Pz x Le3) / E x B x H3

Where, E = Modulus of elasticity for tool materials

= 224000 N / mm2 for HSS
= 700000 N / mm2 for C2 Carbide
= 560000 N / mm2 for C6 Carbide
= 420000 N / mm2 for Ti C and Ceramics
The permissible deflection of shank ranges from 0.04 mm in finishing cuts to 0.1 mm in roughing
cuts.
Selection of carbide cutting tools

Cemented carbides, products of powder metallurgy, are composed of various combinations of

tungsten carbide, titanium carbide, tantalum carbide and cobalt. Manufacturers of cemented-
carbide cutting tools offer several hundred different grades in a variety of compositions. For selecting
the available grades for particular machining operation refer carbide grade chart of the suppliers.
Kennametal or Sandvik Asia catalogues
Determining the insert thickness for carbide tools
The Tip Dimensions:

Dimensions of Tip in the Shank

 Milling cutters
Milling is a machining process for generating machined surfaces by removing a predetermined
amount of material progressively from the work piece.

A characteristic feature of the milling process is that each tooth of the cutting tool takes a portion of
the stock in the form of small, individual chips.
Typical cutting tool types for milling machine operations are shown in Figs. 7.60 and 7.61.

Milling methods
■ Peripheral milling (slab milling)
■ Face milling and straddle milling
■ End milling
■ Single-piece milling
■ String or “gang” milling
■ Slot milling
■ Profile milling
■ Thread milling
■ Worm milling
■ Gear milling

Milling Cutters:-
Milling cutter is the cutting tool used in milling machines. It has a cylindrical body, rotates on its
axis, and is provided equally spaced teeth which engage the work piece internally. The cutter teeth are
machined to give cutting edge on the periphery.
Materials:-
All important tool materials like carbon steel, high speed steel cast non ferrous cutting alloys, sintered
carbide, etc. are used for milling cutters. Solid type of cutters may be made of carbon steel, or
generally of HSS.
CLASSIFICATION:
The broad classification of milling cutters is according to the shape of teeth they carry, such as plain,
inserted, formed or saw teeth, etc. Under this classification are covered a large number of milling
cutters.
TYPES OF MILLING CUTTERS:-
1) Plain milling cutters
2) Side milling cutters
3) End milling cutters
4) Face milling cutters
5) Metal slitting cutters
6) Angle milling cutters
7) Formed milling cutters
8) T-slot milling cutters

1) PLAIN MILLING CUTTERS

It has straight or helical teeth cut on the periphery of a disc or a cylindrical surface. It may be solid
inserted blade or tipped type, and is usually profile sharpened but may be form relieved also.
Generally helical teeth are used when the width of the cutter exceeds 75 mm.

The plain milling cutter is generally used for milling flat surfaces parallel to cutter axis. Helical teeth
cutter is used where large stock removal is required. Helical angle permits several teeth to cut
simultaneously which results in smoother cutting action. Heavy duty plain cutters have fewer teeth
and helix angle 35˚-45˚. There are sometimes nicked on their periphery a helical pattern for chip
breaking and smooth operation.

2) SIDE MILLING CUTTERS:- This cutter is similar to plain cutter except that it has teeth on the
side. However, side-milling cutter may have teeth on the periphery and on one or (more) both sides of
the tool. These cutters may have straight, spiral or staggered teeth. Further these may be solid,
inserted blade or tipped construction and may be profile sharpened on farm relieved.
3) END MILLING CUTTERS: -
These cutters have an integral shaft for driving and have teeth on both periphery and ends. These are
cutters with teeth on the periphery and end integral with a shank for holding and driving. These are
used to mill flat, horizontal, vertical, bevel, chamber and slant surfaces, grooves and keyways, to cut
slot which is a process in die marking etc. The end mill cutter has either taper shank or straight shank.

4) FACE MILLING CUTTERS: These cutters are made in two common forms. The smaller type
almost resembles a shell end-milling cutter and is known as shell typeface milling cutter. It carries
teeth on the periphery as well as the end face. Maximum cutting is done by teeth on the periphery and
these end face perform finishing operation. The farmer type is used for small work whereas the latter
for longer surface. The shell type cutters are usually held in a stab corer and lagers type can be
mounted directly on the spindle nose.
5) METAL SLITTING CUTTERS :These are used for cutting thin slate or for posting off. They are
manufactured in two types – 1) Plain slitting saws 2) Staggered teeth saw, these cutters are also called
'metal slitting saw'.

6) ANGLE MILLING CUTTERS

These cutters carry sharp angular teeth which are neither parallel nor normal to their axis. Their
specific use is in milling v-grooves, notches; dovetail slot, reamer teeth and other angular surfaces.
The two types – 1) Single angle cutters 2) Double angle cutters
7) FORM MILLING CUTTERS
They are also called as form relieved milling cutters or radius cutters. This category includes a fairly
large variety at milling cutters used for producing different shaped contours. Their teeth are provided
with a certain angle or relief so that their form and size are retained even after recompensing.
Their common types are as follows –
a) Corner rounding cutters
b) Concave & convex cutters
c) Gear cutter
d) Tap & reamer flat cutters
e) Gear hobs
f) Thread milling cutters

8) T-SLOT MILLING CUTTER

It is a single operation cutter which is used only for cutting T-slots. In operation the narrow groove at the top is
first milled by means of a slotting cutter or end milling cutter. The - slot milling cutter is then employed for
milling the wider grove.

ELEMENTS OF FLUTED MILLING CUTTER

1) ARBOR
It is the shaft on which the milling cutter is mounted and driven.
2) SHANK
It is the parallel or tapered extension along the axis of the cutter employed for holding and driving.
3) CUTTER BODY
This is the main frame of the cutter on which the teeth are brazed or integrated mechanically or hold
mechanically.
4) PERIPHERY
It is locus of the cutting edge of the cutter and is an imaginary cylindrical surface enveloping the tips
of the cutting teeth.
5) CUTTING EDGE
It of a milling cutter is the only portion that touches the work. It is the intersection of the tooth face
and the tooth flank of beds surface.
6) GASH
It is the chip space or flute between the back and one tooth and face of the next tooth.
7) FACE
It is that portion of the gash adjacent to the cutting edge and which the chip impinges as it is cut from
the work.
8) FILLET
It is the curved surface at the bottom of the gash which joins the face of one tooth to the back of the
tooth immediately ahead.
9) LAND
This is narrow surface back of the cutting edge resulting from providing a clearance angle. It never
touches the work and is less than 1.5 mm in width.
10) TOOT FACE
This is the surface upon which the chip is formed when the cutter is cutting. It may be either flat or
curved surface.
11) BACK OF TOOTH
The back of flank of the tooth is created by the gallet and relief angle. It may be flat or curved
surface.
12) LIP ANGLE
It is the angle which is inclined between the land and the face of the tooth.
13) CLEARANCE ANGLE
This is the angle between a line through the surface of the land and a tangent to the periphery at the
cutting edge. It is necessary to prevent the back of tooth from rubbing against the work.
14) RELIEF ANGLE
A secondary clearance is generally ground back of the land to keep the width of the land within the
proper limits. It is necessary because after several sharpening of the cutter, the width of the land
increase to a pt. where it begins to interface with the work. It is usually 3° > clearance angle.
15) RAKE
It the face of a milling cutter lies along a radius of the cutter, it is said to have zero rake. It the face of
cutter lies along a line on either side of the radius, it has +ve/-ve rakes.
Drills and Drilling

Drilling is a machining operation for producing round holes in metallic and nonmetallic materials. A
drill is a rotary-end cutting tool with one or more cutting edges or lips and one or more straight or
helical grooves or flutes for the passage of chips and cutting fluids and coolants. When the depth of a
drilled hole reaches three or four times the drill diameter, a reduction must be made in the drilling
feed and speed. A coolant-hole drill can produce drilled depths to eight or more times the diameter of
the drill. The gun drill can produce an accurate hole to depths of more than 100 times the diameter of
the drill with great precision.

Drill types or styles

■HSS jobber drills
■Solid-carbide jobber drills
■Carbide-tipped screw-machine drills
■HSS screw-machine drills
■Carbide-tipped glass drills
■HSS extra long straight-shank drills (24 in)
■Taper-shank drills (0 through number 7 ANSI taper)
■Coolant-hole drills
■HSS taper-shank extra long drills (24 in)
■Aircraft extension drills (6 and 12 in)
■Gun drills
■HSS half-round jobber drills
■Spotting and centering drills
■S-point drills
■Square solid-carbide dies drills
■Micro drills and micro tools
Reamer classification
Reaming
A reamer is a rotary cutting tool, either cylindrical or conical in shape, used for enlarging drilled
holes to accurate dimensions, normally on the order of ±0.0001 inch and closer. Reamers usually
have two or more flutes that may be straight or spiral in either left-hand or right-hand spiral. Reamers
are made for manual or machine operation. Figure 7.102 shows reamer geometry and terminology.
Reamers are made in various forms, including

■ Hand reamers
■ Machine reamers
■ Left-hand flute
■ Right-hand flute
■ Expansion reamers
■ Chucking reamers
■ Stub screw-machine reamers
■ End-cutting reamers
■ Jobber reamers
■ Shell reamers
■ Combined drill and reamer
Standard reamer sizes are produced and may be purchased separately or in sets for various
applications. Some of the more common types of reamers are shown in Fig. 7.104.

Forms of reamers
Morse taper reamers: These reamers are used to produce and maintain holes for American standard
Morse taper shanks. They usually come in a set of two, one for roughing and the other for finishing
the tapered hole.
Taper-pin reamers: Taper-pin reamers are produced in HSS with straight, spiral, and helical flutes.
They range in size from pin size 7/0 through 14 and include 21 different sizes to accommodate
all standard taper pins.
Dowel-pin reamers: Dowel-pin reamers are produced in HSS for standard length and jobber’s lengths
in 14 different sizes from 0.125 through 0.500 in. The nominal reamer size is slightly smaller than the
pin diameter to afford a force fit.
Helical-flute die-maker’s reamers: These reamers are used as milling cutters to join closely drilled
holes. They are produced from HSS and are available in 16 sizes ranging from size AAA through O.
Reamer blanks. Reamer blanks are available for use as gauges, guide pins, or punches. They are made
of HSS in jobber’s lengths from 0.015 through 0.500 in diameter. Fractional sizes through
1.00 in diameter and wire-gauge sizes also is available.
Shell reamers (see Fig. 7.104f). These reamers are designed for mounting on arbors and are best
suited for sizing and finishing operations. Most shell reamers are produced from HSS. The inside hole
in the shell reamer is tapered 1⁄8 in per foot and fits the taper on the reamer arbor.
Expansion reamers (see Fig. 7.104a). The hand expansion reamer has an adjusting screw at the
cutting end that allows the reamer flutes to expand within certain limits. The recommended expansion
limits are listed below for sizes through 1.00 inch in diameter.

Reamer size: 0.25 to 0.625 in diameter Expansion limit = 0.010 in

Reamer size: 0.75 to 1.000 in diameter Expansion limit = 0.013 in
Taps –Tap classification

A tap is a screw like tool which has threads like a bolt and three or four flutes cut across the thread. It
is used to cut threads on the inside of a hole as in a nut. The edges of a thread formed by the flutes are
cutting. The lower part of tap is somewhat tapered so that it can well dig into the walls of the drilled
hole. The upper parts of the tap consist of a shank ending in a square for holding the tap in a machine
spindle or by a tap wrench. Taps are made from carbon steel or high speed steel and hardened and
tempered.
Taps are classified as – (1) Hand taps (2) Machine taps

Hand taps:
The hand taps are illustrated in figure are usually made in sets of these
(1) Tapered tap,
(2) Second tap
(3) Bottoming top.
They are rougher intermediate and finisher respectively.

Machine taps:
It has straight basic flutes. In machine tapping it is necessary to see that chip always clear the cutting
edge.
Elements of Tap:
(1) AXIS: - It is the longitudinal center line of the tap.
(2) BODY: - The threaded portion extending from the entering end of the tap of the shank.
(3) CHAMFER OR TAPERED LEAD: - The tapered cutting portion provided with cutting clearance
at the entering end of the tap to distribute the cutting action over several thread forms and to facilitate
the entry of the tap into the hole.
(4) CHAMPER RELIEF: - The gradual decrease in land height from the cutting edge to heel on the
chamfered portion on the land to provide clearance for the cutting edge.
(5) CUTTING EDGE: The edge formed by the intersection of the flute face and the form of the
thread imposed on the land.
(6) DRIVING SQUARE: - The portion of the extreme end of the tap shank by which the tap is held
and driven.
(7) FLUTE: - The flute is groves in the body of the tap to provide cutting edge, permit the removal of
chip and to allow lubricant or coolant to reach the cutting edges.
(8) FACE: The portion of the flute surface adjacent to the cutting edge upon which the chip impinges
as it is cut from the work.
(9) FLUTE RELIEF:- Radial relief in the thread form starting at the cutting edge and continuing to
the heel.
(10) HEEL: - The edge formed by intersection of relieved surface behind the cutting edge and the
flute.
(11) LAND: - The portion of the body at tap left standing between the flutes, also the surface between
the cutting edge and the heel.
(12) RADIAL RELIEF:- Radial relief is thread form provided behind unrelieved end.
(13) SHANK:- The portion of the tap which it is held or located and driven.
(14) THREAD RELIEF:- The clearance produced on the tap by which reducing the diameter of entire
thread between the cutting edge and heel.
(15) WEB:- The central portion of the tap situated between the tools of the flutes and extending along
the flute portion of the tap.
(16) WEB TAPER: - The increase of web thickness from the entering end of the tap towards the
shank end of the flutes.
(17) BACK TAPER:- The reduction in diameter of tap body of the threaded pattern from the entering
and towards the shank.
(18) EFFECTIVE / PITCH DIAMETER:-
On a tap having a parallel threaded portion, the effective diameter is the diameter of an imaginary co-
axial cylinder which would pass through the threads and the width of the spaces between the threads
equal at these points measured at cutting edges.
(19) MAJOR DIAMETER: On a tap having a parallel threaded portion, the major diameter is
diameter measurement over the rest of the threads form at the edges.
(20) MINOR DIAMETER: On a tap having a parallel, the major diameter is measurement over the
roots of the thread form at the cutting edge.
(21) OVERALL LENGTH: The axial length over the extreme ends of the tap.
THREAD CUTTING DIES:

A threading die is an extremely internally threaded tool used to cut external screw threads by
screwing on the work piece. The threads are usually cut in one part. Threading dies may be solid or
split, they may be round, square or hexagon spring or two pieces adjustable dies for a hand stock.
A threading die operates in a manner resembling the operation of a tap, except that it cuts external
and not internal threads.
Round thread cutting dies are use to cut threads and to size previously cut threads. Thread cutting is
accompanied by the removal of a considerable amount of chips and the clearance holes may be large
enough to avoid being dogged by the chips. Only a very thin layer of metal is removed in sizing
screw threads and therefore dies for this purpose do not require large clearance holes. Such may be
also of lower strength.

No. of cutting teeth,

Out of total cutting teeth, three teeth are used for roughing and three are used for semi finishing
where the value of S3 is reduced gradually.
No of sizing teeth = 16