Machine Tools and Digital

Manufacturing (MTDM)
ME303

MODULE 1
Machining Process
 Introduction
 Machine is a device used for performing an operation
by using a motor or an engine, which reduces human
efforts.
– Machine is a combination two or more mechanisms in
order to perform an operation.

 Machine tool is a machine which is used to produce

other machines or machine components.
– Eg. Lathe, milling machine, drilling machine, grinding
machine etc.
 Machine Tools
• Machine tools is a machining equipment that cuts,
shears, punches, presses, drills, grinds.

• Machine tools are generally the power driven, the

metal cutting machines change the workpiece to the
required shape and size by:
1. Cutting away the unwanted sections
2. Pressing, drawing, punching or shearing
3. Controlled electrical machinery process
Machined Components
 Machining Process
• For making a finished product, various operations such as turning,
drilling, milling, threading, reaming, grinding etc., have to be
performed.

Eg: Engine block, cylinders, pistons, gears, flywheels, crank shaft

• A variety of machine tools can perform these operations and the

choice of a particular machine essentially depends on:
1. Material of the workpiece
2. Nature of metal cutting operations
3. Number of parts to be machined
4. Degree of accuracy desired
Any machine tool chosen will have the capability
to:

1. Hold and support the workpiece and cutting tool.

2. Impart suitable reciprocating or rotary movement to the

cutting tool or workpiece.

3. Regulate the cutting speed and feeding movement

between the tool and workpiece so that the desired
cutting actions, accuracy and repeatability can be
achieved.
 Machining
• The body which removes excess material through direct
mechanical contact is called a cutting tool.

• The machine which provide the necessary relative motions

between work and the tool is known as machine tool.

• Depending on the relative motion between tool and

workpiece, various types of surfaces can be produced.

• Machining is essential for high precision and high

performance products.
 Classification of Machine tools
Conventional machining
1. Metal cutting process
2. Grinding process
3. Finishing process

Non-conventional machining
4. EDM
5. ECM
6. LBM
7. EBM
8. USM
 Classification of Machining process

1. Metal cutting Process

a) Turning
b) Drilling
c) Milling
d) Boring
e) Planning
f) Shaping
g) Reaming
Classification of Machining process
2. Grinding process
• Surface grinding
• Cylindrical grinding
• Centerless grinding

3. Finishing process
• Lapping
• Honing
• Super finishing
Metal cutting/ Machining process
• MACHINING is a term that covers a large collection of
manufacturing processes designed to remove unwanted material,
usually in the form of chips, from a workpiece.

• Machining is used to convert castings, forgings, or preformed

blocks of metal into desired shapes, with size and finish specified
to fulfill design requirements.

• Every manufactured product has components that require

machining, often to great precision. Therefore, this collection of
processes is one of the most important of the basic manufacturing
processes because of the value added to the final product.
 Types of machining processes
1. Turning
2. Milling
3. Drilling
4. Planning
5. Shaping and Broaching
6. Boring
7. Reaming
8. Gear Manufacturing
9. Finishing operations
 Principle of Machining
• The required surface is generated by the relative motion between
cutting tool and workpiece.
• Two kinds of relative motion are provided:
– Primary motion
– Feed motion

• Primary motion is the main motion provided by the machine tool

so that the face of tool approaches the workpiece material and
this motion absorb most of the total power.

• Feed motion when added to the primary motion leads to

continuous chip removal.
TURNING Operation
Lathe machine
Theory of Metal Cutting
 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material to
form a chip.
– As chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.

Figure ‑ (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool

with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a)
 Metal Cutting theory
• During metal cutting, the metal in front of the tool is severely
compressed.

• When this compressive force is more than the shear strength of

the material, the metal below the cutting edge yields and flow
plastically in the form of chips.

• Plastically deform a material using a hard tool in order to obtain

desired physical shape and properties is called machining.

• Metal removal is in the form of chips. Chips are formed due to

shearing and tearing.
 Single Point Cutting Tool
• Single point cutting tools will have only one
effective cutting edge to remove the excess
material from the workpiece.
Ex:- Tools used in lathe, shaper etc.

• Cutting using single point cutting tool can be

affected by six angles of the tool and nose radius
of the tool.
 Tool Nomenclature
1. Shank
2. Face
3. Base
4. Flank
5. Rake angle (α)
– Back rake
– Side rake
6. Relief angle (Ɵ)
– End relief
– Side relief
7. Cutting edge angle (C)
– End cutting angle
– Side cutting angle
8. Nose radius (r)
Tool Nomenclature
Nomenclature of Single Point
Cutting Tool
 Cutting Conditions in Machining
• The three dimensions of a machining process:
1. Cutting speed v – primary motion
2. Feed f – secondary motion
3. Depth of cut d – penetration of tool below original work
surface.

• For certain operations, Material Removal Rate can be

found as
MRR = v f d
where v = cutting speed; f = feed; d = depth of cut
 Attributes of Tool Nomenclature
1. Rake angle (α)
– Back rake
– Side rake
2. Relief angle (Ɵ)
– End relief
– Side relief
3. Cutting edge angle (C)
– End cutting angle
– Side cutting angle
4. Nose radius (r)
Single Point Cutting Tool
 Attributes of Tool Nomenclature
1. Back rake angle:
Back rake angle is the angle between the face of tool and a line
parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane.
Back rake angle helps in removing the chips away from the
workpiece.
• negative back rake angle
• positive back rake angle.

2. Side rake angle:

Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined
side ways. Side rake angle is the angle between the surface of the
flank and the line down from the point perpendicular to the base.
 Attributes of Tool Nomenclature
3. End relief angle:
End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing
on the workpiece.
4. Side relief angle:
Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the
interference as the tool enters the material.
5. End cutting edge angle:
It provides clearance between tool cutting edge and
workpiece.
6. Side cutting edge angle:
It is responsible for turning the chip away from the
finished surface.
 Mechanism of chip formation
• In the process of chip formation by shear, the workpiece
material adjacent to tool face is compressed and a crack runs
ahead of cutting tool and towards the body of the workpiece.

• As the tool advances into the workpiece, the metal ahead of

the tool is severely stressed. The cutting tool causes internal
shearing action in the metal, such that the metal below the
cutting edge flows plastically through the shear plane at an
angle shear angle (ɸ).
 SHEAR ZONES IN METAL CUTTING

Figure ‑ More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone

rather than shear plane.
Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from tool‑chip
friction
Four Basic Types of Chips in Machining
1. Continuous chip
2. Discontinuous or Segmented chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

The factors influencing the type of chip produced are:

i. Properties of the material to be cut.
ii. Cutting parameters like speed, feed, depth of cut, rake angle of the tool
etc.
iii. Surface finish of tool.
 Continuous Chip
• Ductile work materials
(e.g., low carbon steel)
• High cutting speeds
• Small feeds and depths
• Sharp cutting edge on the
tool.
• Low tool‑chip friction
• Suitable cutting fluids.

Figure ‑ Four types of chip formation in metal

cutting:
(b) continuous
 Segmented Chip
• Brittle work materials
(e.g., cast irons)
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth
of cut.
• High tool‑chip friction

Figure ‑ Four types of chip formation in

metal cutting:
(a) segmented
 Continuous with BUE
• Ductile materials
• Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds
• Heay depth of cut
• Absence of cutting fluid
• Tool-chip friction causes portions
of chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE formation is cyclical; it forms,
then breaks off

Figure ‑ Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting: (c)
continuous with built‑up edge
 Built Up Edge-BUE
• When machining ductile materials, the high friction and
temperature may cause the work material to adhere or weld
to the cutting edge of the tool forming the BUE.

• Successive layers of work material are added to the BUE.

When this edge become larger and unstable, it breaks up and
part of it is carried away by the chip.
 Serrated Chip
• Semicontinuous - saw-
tooth appearance
• Cyclical chip formation
of alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain

• Most closely associated

with difficult-to-
machine metals at high
cutting speeds

Figure ‑ Four types of chip formation in

metal cutting: (d) serrated
 Chip Breaker
• When tool has to cut ductile materials like low carbon steels,
copper, aluminum, zinc, brass etc., these materials produce
long continuous chips which are difficult to handle and it will
fouls the tool.

• These chips are to be broken into small chips for ease of

handling and to prevent it from being hazardous.

• Chip breakers are used to break this continuous chips into

small pieces.
 Chip breaker

1. CLAMP TYPE
2. STEP TYPE
3. GROOVE TYPE
 Methods of Machining
1. Orthogonal cutting or 2D cutting
2. Oblique cutting or 3D cutting
S. No.

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1. The cutting angle of tool make right The cutting angle of tool does not make right
angle(90⁰) to the direction of motion. angle to the direction of motion.

2 The chip flow in the direction normal to the The chips make an angle with the normal to the
cutting edge. cutting edge.

3. In orthogonal cutting only two components
of force considered cutting force and thrust
force which can be represent by 2D
coordinate system.
In oblique cutting three component of force are
considered, cutting force, thrust force and radial
force which cannot represent by 2D coordinate.
It used 3D coordinate to represent the forces
acting during cutting, so it is known as 3D
cutting.

4. This tool has lesser cutting life compare to This tool has higher cutting life.
oblique cutting.

5. The shear force act per unit area is high The shear force per unit area is low, which
which increase the heat developed per unit decreases heat develop per unit area hence
area. increases tool life.

6. The chips flow over the tool. The chips flow along the sideways.
Ex: sawing, broaching, jack plane Ex: lathe turning, drilling, milling, shaping,
planning
 Tool signature
• It is the system of designating the principal angles of a single point
cutting tool.

• Tool signature is the sequence of numbers listing the various

angles in degrees and the size of nose radius in mm.

• There are several systems available like

1. American Standard Association (ASA),
2. Orthogonal Rake System(ORS),
3. Normal Rake System(NRS)

• The most commonly used is ASA.

 1. American Standards Association (ASA)
system
• American Standards Association (ASA) system utilizes
three mutually perpendicular planes for reference
purpose namely Machine longitudinal plane,
Machine transverse plane and Reference plane.

• Tool signature in ASA system consists of two rake

angles, two clearance angles, two cutting edge angles
and the nose radius of a single point cutting tool.
 American Standard Association
(ASA-System)
• The sequence of tool angles are Back rake angle, Side rake angle, End
relief angle, Side relief angle, End cutting edge angle, Side cutting edge
angle and Nose Radius in mm.

• The tool may be designated as 8-14-6-6-6-15-1.

– Back rake αb
– Side rake αs
– End relief Ɵe
– Side relief Ɵs
– End cutting edge angle Ce
– Side cutting edge angle Cs
Nose radius (r)
 2. Orthogonal Rake System (ORS)
• Orthogonal Rake System (ORS) also utilizes three
mutually perpendicular planes for reference purpose
namely Cutting plane, Orthogonal plane and
Reference plane.

• Similar to the ASA system, tool signature in ORS

system consists of two rake angles, two clearance
angles, two cutting edge angles and the nose radius
of a single point cutting tool.
Orthogonal Rake System
 3. Normal Rake System (NRS)
• Normal Rake System (NRS) utilizes three planes (not
necessarily mutually perpendicular) for reference purpose
namely Cutting plane, Normal plane and Reference plane.

• Similar to the ORS system, tool signature in NRS system also

consists of two rake angles, two clearance angles, two cutting
edge angles and the nose radius of a single point cutting tool.
 Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc

where r = chip thickness ratio; to = thickness of the chip prior to

chip formation; and tc = chip thickness after separation

• Chip thickness after cut is always greater than before, so

chip ratio is always less than 1.0
 Shear Angle (ɸ)
Vf

Vs

Vc

Vc= cutting velocity

Vf= chip flow velocity r = Vf / V c
Vs = shear velocity

Shear angle is the angle made by shear plane with velocity of cutting.
Use of proper cutting fluid can increase shear angle.
 Velocity Relations
1. Cutting Velocity Vc
– It is the speed of tool relative to the work and
directed parallel to the cutting force.
2. Chip flow Velocity Vf
– It represents the speed of the chip relative to the
cutting tool and directed along the tool face.
3. Shear Velocity Vs
– It is the speed of the chip relative to the work
piece and directed along the shear plane.
 Velocity Relation

Vs

Vf

Vc
 Determining Shear Plane Angle
• Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle 
can be determined as the relation between
cutting ratio(r) and rake angle(α).
r cos 
tan  
1  r sin
where r = chip ratio, and  = rake angle

to
r
tc
 CARD MODEL

Figure ‑ Shear strain during chip formation:

(a) chip formation shown by a series of parallel plates
sliding relative to each other,
(b) one of the plates isolated to show shear strain,
c) shear strain triangle used to derive strain equation
 Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed from
the following equation, based on the preceding
parallel plate model:

g= tan( - ) + cot 

Where, = shear strain,

f = shear plane angle,
 = rake angle of cutting tool
Chip reduction coefficient (1/r)
to
r
tc

1/r = tc/t = L / Lc
1/r = Vc/Vf

r cos 
tan  
1  r sin
 Forces Acting on Chip
• Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
• Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure- Forces
in metal
cutting: (a)
forces acting
on the chip in
orthogonal
cutting
 Resultant Forces
• Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
• Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'

• Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:

– R' must be equal in magnitude to R
– R’ must be opposite in direction to R
– R’ must be collinear with R
 Coefficient of Friction

Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:

F

N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction as follows:

  tan 
 Shear Stress

Shear stress acting along the shear plane:

Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

t *b
As 
sin 
Shear stress (S) = shear strength of work material during cutting
 Cutting Force and Thrust Force

• Forces acting on the tool that can be measured using two component
tool dynamometer, in which electrical strain gauges are used to
measure the strain in the tool where ever cutting force is applied.
– Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft

• Forces F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured.

Figure ‑ Forces in
metal cutting: (b)
forces acting on the
tool that can be
measured
 MERCHANT’S CIRCLE
• It is used to analyze the forces acting in metal cutting.
• To analyze the three force system, which balance
each other for cutting to occur.

• Each system is a triangle of forces. The three triangles

are:
1. Triangle of forces for cutting forces (Fc, Ft, R)
2. Triangle of forces for shear forces (Fs, Fn, R)
3. Triangle of forces for frictional forces ( F, N, R)
 Assumptions in Drawing
Merchant’s Circle
1. Tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the
clearance face.
2. Chip width is constant.
3. Depth of cut remains constant.
4. Width of tool is greater than work.
5. Workpiece moves with uniform velocity.
6. No BUE is formed.
7. Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting
edge.
8. Cutting edge is a straight line perpendicular to direction of
motion of cutting.
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE
SOLUTION OF MERCHANT CIRCLE
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE
 Coefficient of Friction

β=

β=Friction Angle = λ
 Merchant’s Analysis
Cutting force, Fc = R cos (β-α)
Trust force F t = R sin (β-α )
F t / Fc = Tan (β-α )
 Merchant’s Analysis

Shear force, F s = R cos (β – α + Ф)

Fc / F s = cos (β-α)/ cos (β-α+ Ф)

Shear Force, Fs = F c *cos (β-α+ Ф) / cos (β-α)

 Work Done in Metal Cutting
W = Fc * Vc

Ws = Fs* Vs

Wf = F * Vf

W= Ws+ Wf
Fc * Vc = Fs* Vs + F * Vf

• W=work done in metal cutting

• Ws= work done due to shear
• Wf= work done due to friction
 Forces in Metal Cutting
• Equations can be derived to relate the forces that cannot be
measured, to the forces that can be measured(F t and Fc ).
F = Fc sin + Ft cos
N = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fs = Fc cos ‑ Ft sin
Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos

• Based on these calculated force, shear stress and coefficient

of friction can be determined.
 1. Ernst -Merchant’s Theory
• Ernst and Merchant developed the first
reasonable theory in metal cutting.
• It is assumed that the shear angle would take up a
value to make the work done in cutting a minimum.

• Of all the possible angles at which shear deformation

could occur, the work material will select a shear
plane angle  which minimizes energy, given by
2ɸ + β – α = 90⁰
or
 
  45  
2 2
• Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane
which means lower shear force
• Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of
which mean easier machining

Figure ‑ Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a resulting

lower shear plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger
shear plane area.
Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear
angle according to the Merchant equation
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

 
  45  
2 2

• To increase shear plane angle

– Increase the rake angle
– Reduce the friction angle (or coefficient of
friction)
2. Theory of Lee and Shaffer
  = 45⁰
Theory of Lee and Shaffer
Forces on a single point tool
Forces on single point cutting tool
1. F c = Cutting force (tangential feed force)
2. F t = Thrust force (axial feed force )
3. F r = Radial feed force

 
Resultant force R = (F c 2 + F t 2 + F r 2)
 Power and Energy Relationships
• A machining operation requires power.
• The power to perform machining can be
computed from:
Pc = Fc V
where Pc = cutting power(KW);
Fc = cutting force(N)
V = cutting speed(m/sec)