PRODUCTION ENGINEERING

DAY 3
MERCHANT’S CIRCLE

 It is used to analyze the forces acting in metal cutting.

 To analyze the three force system, which balance each other for cutting to occur.

 Each system is a triangle of forces. The three triangles are:

1. Triangle of forces for cutting forces

2. Triangle of forces for shear forces

3. Triangle of forces for frictional forces

Assumptions in Drawing Merchant’s Circle

1. Tool is perfectly sharp and there is no contact along the clearance face.

2. Chip width is constant.

3. Depth of cut remains constant.

4. Width of tool is greater than work.

5. Work piece moves with uniform velocity.

6. No BUE is formed.

7. Shear surface is a plane extending upwards from the cutting edge.

8. Cutting edge is a straight line perpendicular to direction of motion of cutting.

Ernst -Merchant’s Theory

 Ernst and Merchant developed the first reasonable theory in metal cutting.

 It is assumed that the shear angle would take up a value to make the work done in
cutting a minimum.

 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear plane which means lower shear force

 Result: lower cutting forces, power, temperature, all of which mean easier machining

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 Theory of Lee and Shaffer

The theory of Lee and Shaffer is based on slip line field theory and applies simplified plasticity
analysis to the problem of orthogonal metal cutting.

The assumptions are

1. The material is rigid plastic

2. The behaviour of material is independent of rate of deformation
3. The effect of temperature increase during deformation are negligible
4. The inertia effects are also negligible.

Thermal Aspects of Machining

 When a metal is deformed plastically in metal cutting, most of the energy used is
converted into heat.

 The energy available at the cutting edge is converted to frictional heat, caused by the
destruction of molecular bonds in metal in shear plane.

 The three main sources of heat are:

 Shear zone (plastic deformation zone)

 Chip- tool interface zone

 Work- tool interface zone

Primary zone

 Also known as shear zone

 Maximum heat is generated due to the plastic deformation of the metal
 80 to 85% heat is generated from this zone.

Secondary zone

 It is also called as the friction zone

 Heat is generated due to friction between moving chip on the rake face of tool
 15 to 20% heat is generated from this zone.

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 Tertiary zone

 It is the work tool contact zone

 Burnishing action is the cause of heat
 1 to 3 % heat is generated from this zone.

Knowledge of the cutting temperature is important because it:

1. Affects the wear of the cutting tool. Cutting temperature is the primary factor affecting
the cutting tool wear.

2. Can induce thermal damage to the machined surface. High surface temperatures
promote the process of oxidation of the machined surface.

3. Causes dimensional errors in the machined surface. The cutting tool elongates as a
result of the increased temperature, and the position of the cutting tool edge shifts toward
the machined surface.

Cutting temperature control

The temperature in metal cutting can be reduced by:

1. Application of cutting fluids (coolants).

2. Change in the cutting conditions by reduction of cutting speed and/or feed and DOC;

3. Selection of proper cutting tool geometry (positive tool orthogonal rake angle).

Effect of temperature on chip

 The temperature of the chip can affect the performance of the tool only as long as the
chip remains in contact.

 The heat remaining in the chip after it breaks is carried out of the system.

 In turning operations, much of the metal heated during one revolution of the workpiece is
removed on the next revolution, and this portion of the heat is also fed into the chip.

 It is sometimes necessary to remove this heat with a liquid coolant to maintain

dimensional accuracy.

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 Effect of temperature on w/p

 Low cutting speeds, low rake angles and other factors which give a small shear plane
angle tend to increase the heat flow into the workpiece.

 Alloying and treatments which reduce the ductility of the work material will usually
reduce the residual strain in the workpiece.

Influence of the cutting temperature on machining effects

 Heat phenomena that occur in the narrow and in the broad area of the cutting zone, are
directly related to

1. wear rate of tool,

2. machinability rate of work piece material,

3. tool stability,

 Generated heat goes from the cutting zone into the chips, tool, work piece and into the
environment.

 There is decrease of the hardness of tool's cutting elements, cutting wedge deformations,
the loss of the tool cutting ability and its bluntness occur.

Tool Life

 The tool life may be defined as tool's useful life, which has been expended when it can no
longer produce satisfactory parts.
 The tool life is said to be over if poor surface finish is obtained and there is sudden
increase in cutting forces and power consumption.
 The tool life is also said to be over if overheating and fuming due to heat of friction
starts.
 The various factors which affects the tool life are tool geometry, cutting speed, feed, feed
rate, depth of cut, microstructure, and chip thickness.
 The relation between the tool life (T) in minutes and cutting speed (V) in m/min is given
by

VTn = C where

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 C = A constant, and

n = an exponent, which depends upon the tool and work piece

= 0.1 to 0.2 for high speed steel tools

= 0.20 to 0.25 for carbide tools

= 0.4 to 0.55 for ceramic tools

It may be noted that

 (a) The tool life decreases as the cutting speed increases.

 (b) The larger end cutting edge angle of the tool increases tool life.
 (c) The side cutting edge angle (larger than 15°) produces chipping and decreases tool
life.
 (d) The small nose radius results in excessive stress concentration and greater heat
generation.
 (f) The tool life, in case of continuous cutting, is much better than intermittent cutting,
 The tool life is better, if the grain size is larger.
 (g) When the shear angle is large and the chip-tool contact area is low, then the tool life
will be more. 

Important Questions

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  The ceramic tools can withstand temperature upto 600°C only
 Cutting fluids are used to  cool the tool, improve surface finish & cool the work piece
 A numerical method of identification of tool is known as tool signature.
 Tool signature consists of 7 elements
 The factor which affects the tool life is tool geometry, cutting speed and feed rate
 Larger end cutting edge angle Increases tool life
 The tool life decreases as the cutting speed increases.
 The tool life, in case of continuous cutting, is much better than intermittent cutting.
 If the grain size is larger, the tool life is better.
 The tool life is said to be over if poor surface finish is obtained, there is sudden increase
in cutting forces and power consumption and overheating and fuming due to heat of
friction starts
 The relation between the tool life (T) in minutes and cutting speed (V) in m/min is
VTn = C
 As the cutting speed increases, tool life decreases

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