CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

CUTTING TOOL TECHNOLOGY

 Tool Wear and failure

 Tool Materials
 Tool Geometry
 Cutting Fluids
 Tool Wear and failure
 Cutting tools are subjected to high forces, elevated
temperature and sliding; all these conditions induce wear.
 As a result of that, cutting tool wearing effects on the quality
of machined surface and economics of machining operation.
 An additional factors are involved in tool wear:
1. Cutting tool and workpiece material (their physical,
mechanical and chemical properties).
2. Cutting geometry
3. Cutting fluids if used
4. Processing parameters ( cutting speed, feed, and depth of
cut).
 The types of wear on a tool depends on these variables.
 Tool Life: Wear and Failure

• Cutting tools subjected to

– High forces
– High temperatures
– Sliding of the chip along the rake face
– Sliding of the tool along the freshly cut surface
• Induce tool wear
– Tool life
– Surface quality
– Dimensional accuracy
– Economics of cutting operations
• Two types of wear
– Flank and crater wear
 Tool Wear
There are three possible modes by which a
cutting tool can fail in machining:
1. Fracture failure: when excessive cutting force
leading to brittle fracture .
2. Temperature failure: when cutting temp- is too
high.
3. Gradual wears: loss of tool shape and cutting
efficiency. Resulting in Gradual wearing of the
cutting tool
 Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to
the longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)
 Types of tool wear

Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and

types of wear that occur.
 Types of tool wear
1. Flank wears: from
rubbing between newly
work surface and the
Flank (land )face.
2. Crater wears: concave
section, by the action of
the chip sliding against
the surface.
3. Chipping of the cutting
edge(catastrophic)
4. Nose wear
 Types of tool wear

Figure : Crater wear, (above),

and flank wear (right) on a
cemented carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope (photos by K. C.
Keefe, Manufacturing Technology
Lab, Lehigh University).
 Tool Wear Zones

• Crater wear (crater)

– Tool-chip interface
– Predominant at high speeds

• Flank wear (wear land)

– Tool-workpiece interface
– Predominant at low speeds
Tool / Chip Interface / Crater wear
Tool / work piece Interface / Flank wear
 Flank wears
Flank wear is generally attributed to:
1. Sliding of the tool along the machined surface,
causing adhesive and/or abrasive wear
depending on the materials involved (material
of workpiece and tool).
2. Temperature rise, because of its adverse effects
on the tool material properties.
 Adhesive Wear

AR is the real area of contact

Tool wear as a function
time
Effect of cutting speed on tool
flank wear
 Flank wears
 A tool-wear relationship was established by F. W. Taylor for cutting
various steels as:

Where:
vT  C n

v = cutting speed;
T = tool life [the time (in minutes)
that it takes to develop a flank wear];
and
n and C are parameters that depend
on feed, depth of cut, work material,
tooling material, and the tool life
criterion used
 n is the slope of the plot
 C is the intercept on the speed
axis at one minute tool life
 Tool Life Curves (Taylor 1907)

Log T f1
(Tool Life)

Log V

n
V T C
V- cutting speed
T – the time that takes to develop a flank wear land of a certain dimensions
n- constant depends on cutting conditions, Always, n > 0
C – constant (When T=1.0 min, V = C)
 Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life

• VTn = C

•Tool-life curve
–Log-log curve
–T = (C/V)1/n
C

–LogT = 1/n logC – 1/n logV

Tool-life curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. the

slope of these curves is the exponent n in the Taylor tool-
life equations and C is the cutting speed at T = 1 min.
 Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life
• VTn = C
– Given (V1, T1) & (V2, T2) from testing for carbide
– What are n and C?

• V1 T1n = C, V2 T2n = C
– V1 T1n = V2 T2n
– (T1 / T2 )n = V2 / V1
– Then n = log (V2 / V1) / log (T1 / T2)
– Or n =[ log (V2) – log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

• Once we get n, then C = V1 T1n

 n =[ log (V2) – log (V1)] / [log (T1)- log (T2)]

T2

T1

C
V2 V1
 Typical Values of n and C
Tool material n C (m/min) C (ft/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120 350
Steel work 0.125 70 200
Cemented carbide
Non-steel work 0.25 900 2700
Steel work 0.25 500 1500
Ceramic
Steel work 0.6 3000 10,000
 Crater wears
 The most significant factors affecting crater
wears are :
1. Temperature rise on the rake face
2. The degree of chemical affinity between the
tool and workpiece.
 The rake face is subjected to high levels of stress
and temperatures, as well as sliding of the chip
at relatively high speeds.
 The peak temperature can be on the order of
1373 K and the location of maximum depth of
crater wear generally coincides with the
location of maximum temperature at the tool-
chip interface.
• The effect of temperature on crater wear has been described in terms of a
diffusion mechanism [Diffusion is a thermal activated process] (that is, the
movement of atoms across the tool-chip interface).
• Diffusion depends on the tool-workpiece material combination and on
temperature, pressure and time. As these quantities increases, the diffusion rate
increases
 Diffusion Wear

Wear at Low Speeds/High Temperature -

Chemical Diffusion
 Chipping
 Chipping is used to describe the breaking away of a piece from the
cutting edge of the tool.
 The chipped pieces may be very small (microchipping or
macrochipping), or they may involve relatively large fragments.
Causes of chipping:
1. Mechanical shock [ chipping by mechanical shock may occur in a
region in the cutting tool where a small crack or defects already
exists]- main cause of chipping
2. Thermal fatigue [are typically caused by thermal cycling of the
cutting tool resulting in thermal cracks, which are generally
perpendicular to cutting edge]- main cause of chipping
3. High rank angles can also contribute to chipping, because of the
small included angle of the tool tip (a phenomenon similar to
chipping of a very sharp pencil).
4. Crater wear may also contribute to chipping, because it progresses
toward the tool tip and weaken it, causing chipping
 Tool Wear and failure
 Cutting Tool Materials
The proper selection of cutting-tool materials is among
the most important considerations in machining
operation.
In machining operation, the tool is subjected to:
1. High temperatures
2. High contact stresses
3. Rubbing on the workpiece surface
4. And the effects of chip climbing up the rake face of the
tool
 Cutting Tool Materials
 Tool failure modes identify the important properties that a tool
material should possess
 A cutting tool must posses the following characteristics:
1. Hardness- particular at elevated temperatures (hot
hardness), so that the hardness and strength of cutting
tool material are maintained at the temperature
encountered in machining operation.
2. Toughness- so that impact forces on the cutting tool in
interrupted cutting operations such as milling or turning,
do not chip or fracture the tool.
3. Wear resistance- so that an acceptable tool life is
obtained before the tool is replaced [hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasive wear]
4. Chemical stability- so that any adverse reactions that
may contribute to tool wear are avoided or minimized
 Cutting Tool Materials
Several cutting-tool materials having a wide range of these
characteristics
 Hot Hardness

Figure :Typical hot hardness

relationships for selected
tool materials. Plain
carbon steel shows a
rapid loss of hardness as
temperature increases.
High speed steel is
substantially better, while
cemented carbides and
ceramics are significantly
harder at elevated
temperatures.
 Cutting Tool Materials

 Tool materials are usually divided into the following categories

in which they were developed and implemented:
1. Carbon and medium – alloy steels
2. High-speed steels
3. Carbides
4. Coated tools
5. Alumina-based ceramics
6. Cubic boron nitride
7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
8. Diamond
 Carbon alloy steels and medium alloy steel
 Carbon steels are the oldest of
tool materials and have been
used widely for drilling since the
1880s, with shorter tool life.
 Low alloy and medium alloy
steels were developed later with
longer tool life. These steels do
not have sufficient hot hardness
and wear resistance for
machining at high cutting
speeds where the temperature
rises significantly. As from the
figure
 As seen from the figure above, how rapidly the hardness of carbon
steels decreases as the temperature increases. Consequently, the
use of these steels is limited to very low-speed cutting operations
 High-speed steels(HSS)
High-speed- steel (HSS) tools are so named because
they were developed to machine at high speeds than
the carbon alloy steels. (produced in 1990s).
Relatively High hardness compared to carbon steel, and
wear resistance.
Because of their high toughness and resistance to
fracture, HSS are suitable for:
1. For high rank angle tools (that is, small included angle)
2. For use on machine tools that are subjected to
vibration and chatters because of their low stiffness.
 High-speed steels(HSS)
There are two basic types of high-speed tools
1. Molybdenum (M series)- contains up to 10%
molybdenum, with chromium, vanadium, tungsten,
and cobalt as alloying elements.
2. Tungsten (T sereies)- contains 12 to 18% tungsten, with
chromium, vanadium and cobalt as alloying elements
 The M series generally has higher abrasion resistance
than the T series, undergoes less distortion during heat
treatment, and less expensive.
 Consequently, 95% of HSS tools produced in the USA are
made of M-series
•
Carbides
The tool materials (carbon alloy
steels and HSS) have significant
limitations on characteristics
such as strength and hardness,
particularly hot hardness.
• Consequently, they cannot be
used as effectively where high
cutting speed, and hence high
temperatures, are involved, and
their tool life can be relatively
short.
• Carbides, also known as
cemented or sintered carbides,
were introduced to meet the
challenge of higher machining
speeds
 Cemented-Carbides – General Properties
1. High hardness over a wide range of
temperature (90 to 95 HRA).
2. High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 Mpa
3. High thermal conductivity
4. Low thermal expansion
5. Good wear resistance
6. Toughness lower than high speed
steel, therefore, stuffiness of the
machine is important and chatter can
be detrimental.
 The two basic groups of carbides used
for machining operations are
1. Tungsten carbide
2. Titanium carbides.
 Carbides
1. Tungsten carbide (WC) - is a composite material consisting of
tungsten-carbide particles bonded together in a cobalt matrix (also
known as cemented carbide).
• The a mount of cobalt significantly affects the properties of
tungsten carbide. As the cobalt content increases, strength,
hardness and wear resistance decreases.
• Tungsten-carbide tools are generally used for machining steels, cast
irons, and abrasive nonferrous materials, and have largely replaced
HSS tools

wear
 Carbides
2. Titanium carbide (TiC) - is a composite material
consisting of titanium-carbide particles bonded
together in a cobalt matrix.
Has higher wear resistance with a nickel-
molybdenum alloy as the matrix.
Tic is suitable for machining hard materials, mainly
steels and cast irons, and for machining at higher
speeds than those for tungsten carbides
 Coated tools
 A variety of materials can be used as coating over :
1. High speed steel (HSS)
2. And carbide tools.
 Because of their unique properties, coated tools can be used at high
cutting speeds, thus reducing the time required for machining, hence
costs.
• Coated tool can improve tool life by as much as 10 times of uncoated tools
 From the figure below, the machining time has been reduced by a factor
of more than 100 since 1900.
 Coated tools
 Commonly used Coating materials include:
1. Titanium nitride (TiN)
2. Titanium carbide (TiC)
3. Titanium carbonitride (TiCN)
4. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3).
5. Ceramic coating
• Coating thickness range of 2 – 10 µm. Coatings are applied by two
methods
a. Chemical- vapor deposition (CVD): is the most commonly used coating
application method for carbide tools with multiple phases and ceramic
coating.
b. Physical-vapor deposition (PVD): used for carbide tools with Titanium
nitride (TiN) coatings. The coated carbides with TiN coatings have higher
cutting-edge strength, less friction, lower tendency to form a built-up
edge, and are smoother and more uniform thickness (2-4 µm).
 Multiphase coating

Photomicrograph of cross section of multiple coatings on

cemented carbide tool (photo courtesy of Kennametal Inc.)
 Coated tools
The most recent technology for multiple coatings, is
medium-temperature chemical-vapor deposition
(MTCVD), it provides higher resistance to crack
propagation than do CVD coatings.
Coatings should have the following characteristics:
1. High hardness at elevated temperature.
2. Chemical stability and inertness to workpiece material.
3. Low thermal conductivity
4. Good bonding to the substrate, to prevent flanking
5. Little or no porosity
 Alumina-base ceramics
• Alumina-base ceramics, consists
primarily of fine grained, high purity
aluminum oxide Al2O3.
• They are pressed into insert shapes
under high pressure and at room
temperature, then sintered at high
temperature with no binder.
 Alumina-base ceramic tools have:
1. Very high hot hardness over a wide
range of temperature.
2. Very high abrasion resistance
3. Chemically, they are more stable than
HSS and carbides; thus they have less
of tendency to adhere to metals during
machining and hence lower tendency
to form built-up edge. consequently,
good surface finish is obtained
 Alumina-base ceramics
 Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g. rough
milling) due to low toughness (ceramics lack toughness),
which can result in premature tool failure by chipping or
fracture.
 The shape and setup of ceramic tools are also important:
 Smaller rake angles, and hence larger include angles, are
generally preferred in order to avoid chipping.
 The occurrence of tool failure can be reduced by increasing
the stiffness and damping capacity of machine tools and
workholding devices, thus reducing vibration and chatter.
 Cubic Boron Nitride
 Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is the hardest
material presently available.
 The cBN cutting tools are made by bonding a 0.5 to 1mm
layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide
substrate by sintering under high pressure.
 While carbide provide good toughness, the cBN layer
provides very high wear resistance and cutting-edge
strength.
 At elevated temperature, cBN is chemically inert to iron and
nickel, and its resistance to oxidation. It is therefore suitable
for machining hardened ferrous and high-temperature
alloys.
 Because cBN tools are brittle, stuffiness and damping
capacity of machine tool and fixturing device are important
to avoid vibration and chatter.
 Diamond
The hardest substance of all known materials is diamond.
Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon, and single crystal.
As cutting tool, it has :
1. Low tool-chip friction
2. High wear resistance
3. And ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge.
4. Diamond tools can be used satisfactorily at almost any
speed but are suitable mostly for light, uninterrupted cuts
It is used when very fine surface finish and dimensional
accuracy are required, particularly with abrasive
nonmetallic materials and soft nonferrous alloys.
 Diamond

Because diamond is brittle, tool shape and sharpness

are important:
 Low rake angles and large included angles are normally
used to provide a strong cutting edge.

Wear of diamond tools may occur by microchipping

(caused by thermal stresses) and transformation to
carbon (caused by the heat generated during cutting)
 Tool Geometry

Two categories:
 Single point tools
 Multiple cutting edge tools
 Tool Geometry

Figure 23.9 Three ways of holding and presenting the cutting edge
for a single-point tool: (a) solid tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed
insert, one way of holding a cemented carbide insert; and (c)
mechanically clamped insert, used for cemented carbides,
ceramics, and other very hard tool materials.
 Tool Geometry
 Solid Tool
• High speed steel (HSS) and carbon steel cutting tools can be
shaped in one piece and grounded to various geometries.
However, after the cutting edge wears and becomes dull, the
tool has to be removed from its holder and reground, which is
a time consuming process.

• The need for a more efficient

method led to the development
of inserts.
 Tool Geometry
 Inserts are individual cutting tools with a number of cutting edges
and in various shapes. Thus, a square insert has eight cutting edges,
and a triangular has six cutting edges.
 Inserts are available with a wide variety of chip-breaker features for
controlling
1. chip flow
2. and reducing vibration
3. and heat generated
 Tool Geometry
 Inserts are available with various locking mechanisms which are
usually clamped on the tool shank:
1. Clamped : is the preferred methods because after one cutting edge is
worn, it is indexed (rotate in it is holder) so that another edge can be
used
2. Wing lock pins
3. Brazed: is less frequently used, because of the difference in thermal
expansion between the insert and tool-shank materials.

Mechanically Clamping insert Mechanically Wing lockpins insert Brazed inserts

 Tool Geometry
 inserts
• The strength of the cutting edge of an insert depends on its
shape; the smaller the included angle of the edge, the lower is
its strength
 Tool Geometry
 inserts
 In order to further improve edge strength and prevent chipping,
inserts are usually chamfered (honed). Most inserts are chamfered
to a radius of about 0.025 mm.

Figure : Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c) rhombus
with two 80 point angles, (d) hexagon with three 80 point
angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 55 point
angles, (g) rhombus with two 35 point angles. Also shown are
typical features of the geometry.
 Tool Geometry
 inserts

A collection of metal
cutting inserts made of
various materials
(photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.).
 Turning Tool Geometry
 Tool Geometry
 Boring
 Tool Geometry
 Twist Drills

 By far the most common cutting tools for

hole-making
 Usually made of high speed steel

Figure : Standard geometry of a twist drill.

 Tool Geometry
 Face Milling Cutter
 Teeth cut on side and periphery of the cutter

Figure : Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face milling

cutter: (a) side view and (b) bottom view.
Cutting Fluids
 Cutting Fluids
 Also called lubricants and coolants.

 Cutting fluids are used extensively in machining operation to

improve cutting performance via :
1. Cooling the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature
and distortion, and improving tool life [Heat generation at
shear and friction zones]. Easier handling of work part
2. Reducing friction and wear, hence improving tool life and surface
finish [Friction at tool-chip and tool-work interfaces].
3. Reducing forces and energy consumption.
4. Wash a way chips.
5. Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental attack.
 Cutting Fluid Functions

Cutting fluids can be classified according to function:

 Coolants - Designed to reduce effects of heat in

machining
 Lubricants - Designed to reduce tool-chip and
tool-work friction
 Coolants
 Water used as base in coolant-type cutting
fluids
 Most effective at high cutting speeds where
heat generation and high temperatures are
problems
 Most effective on tool materials that are most
subjected to temperature failures.
 Lubricants
 Usually oil-based fluids
 Most effective at lower cutting speeds
 Also reduce temperature in the operation
 Cutting Fluids-deficiencies
There are situations in which the use of cutting fluids can
be detrimental:
1. In an interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, the
cooling action of the cutting fluid increases the extent of
alternate heating and cooling ( thermal cycling) to which
the cutter teeth are subjected. This condition can lead to
thermal cracks (thermal fatigue)
2. Cutting fluids may also cause the chip to become more
curled, thus concentrating the stresses on the tool closer
to the tool tip and reducing tool life.
 Cutting Fluids- cost effectiveness
1. Cutting fluids can present biological and environmental
hazards that require proper recycling and disposal, thus
adding to cost of the machining operation.
2. The use and application of cutting fluids can also be a
significant item in machining operations costs.
 For these reasons, dry cutting, or dry machining, has become
an increasingly important approach in which no coolant or
lubricant is used in cutting operation
• Even though this approach would suggest that higher
temperatures and more rapid tool wear would occur.
 Dry cutting has been associated with high-speed machining,
because of the fact that higher cutting speeds transfer a
greater amount of heat from cutting tool to chip, which is a
naturel strategy for reducing the need for a coolant