Aditya College of Engineering .

Madanapalle

MACHINE TOOLS

Theory of Metal cutting - 3

By:
Amar Gandhi
Faculty ,Dept. of Mechanical Enginering
Mechanics of orthogonal and oblique cutting

 In machining operation, the unit product of the

metal removed is called a Chip.
 The thickness of chip is always more than the layer
of the metal removed. This is due to plastic
deformation of the metal during the cutting
process.
 The separation of chip from the parent metal takes
place by shearing.
 Frictional forces developed at the cutting edge
results in heat and tool wear.
Orthogonal cutting: -
 The process of cutting in which the cutting edge is
perpendicular to the cut is known as Orthogonal
Cutting.
 Orthogonal cutting action is illustrated in the figure.
 Orthogonal cutting: -
- The cutting edge of the tool is perpendicular to
the direction of tool travel
- The cutting edge clears the width of the work
piece on either ends
- The chip flows over the tool face and the direction
of chip flow velocity is normal to the cutting
edge.
- The chip coils in a tight, flat spiral.
- Only two components of cutting forces are acting
on the tool. These two components are
perpendicular to each other and can be
represented in a plane.
 - Maximum chip thickness occurs at its middle
Oblique cutting: -
 The three dimensional cutting is known as Oblique
cutting, since the cutting edge is inclined to the
direction of cutting.
 In oblique cutting as shown in figure
Oblique cutting: -
 The three dimensional cutting is known as Oblique
cutting, since the cutting edge is inclined to the
direction of cutting
 the chip flows sideways in a long curl.
 The cutting edge may or may not clear the width of
work piece.
 The inclination angle is defined as the angle between
the cutting edge and the normal to the direction of
velocity of the work.
 The force which cuts or shears the metal acts on a
larger area in the case of oblique tool.
 Difference between Orthogonal cutting and
Oblique cutting:
ORTHOGONAL CUTTING
 The cutting angle of tool make right
angle to the direction of motion.
 The chip flow in the direction normal
to the cutting edge.
 In orthogonal cutting only two
components of force considered
cutting force and thrust force which
can be represent by 2D coordinate
system.
OBLIQUE CUTTING
 The cutting angle of tool does not
make right angle to the direction of
motion.
 The chips make an angle with the
normal to the cutting edge.
 In oblique cutting three component of
force are considered, cutting force,
thrust force and radial force which
cannot represent by 2D coordinate. It
used 3D coordinate to represent the
forces acting during cutting, so it is
known as 3D cutting.
 2
 This tool has lesser cutting life
compare to oblique cutting.
 The shear force act per unit area
is high which increase the heat
developed per unit area.
 The chips flow over the tool.
 This tool has higher cutting life.
 The shear force per unit area is
low, which decreases heat
develop per unit area hence
increases tool life.
 The chips flow along the
sideways.
CUTTING SPEED, FEED AND DEPTH OF CUT

 Cutting speed: The cutting speed of a cutting tool

may be defined as the speed at which the cutting edge
passes over the material.
 Cutting speed is generally expressed in m/min (meters
per minute), often referred to as surface speed in
meter/ minute.
 Feed:
 The feed of cutting tool is the distance the tool advances
into or along the work piece each time; the cutting point
passes a certain position in its travel over the surface.
 In the case of turning on a lathe, the feed is the distance
that tool advances in one revolution of the work piece.
 On shaper, the feed is the distance the work is moved
relative to the tool for each cutting stroke.
 For single point cutting tools, feed is specified in
mm/revolution, mm/stroke etc. it also may be expressed as
mm/tooth for milling cutters and branches.
(t) =

Depth of cut
 It is the thickness of layer of metal removed in one cut or
pass measured in a direction perpendicular to the
machined surface. The depth of cut is always perpendicular
to the direction of the feed motion.
 In external longitudinal turning, it is half the difference
between work diameter [D1] and machined surface [D2]
obtained after one pass

Depth of cut (t) =




Selection of cutting speed and feed
 The selection of cutting speed and feed is based on the
following parameters:
 Work piece material
 Tool material
 Tool geometry and dimensions
 Size of chip cross section
 Type of finish desired
 Rigidity of the machine
 Type of coolant used
Heat generation in metal cutting
 Considerable heat is generated at the cutting edge
of the tool due to friction between tool and work,
and the plastic shearing at metal in the form of
chips, when the tool is machining metal in a
machine tool
 The heat is evolved as three zones A, B, and C as in
figure.
Zone ‘A’ (shear zone), maximum heat is generated
because of plastic deformation of metal, and practically
all of this heat is carried away by the chip as machining is
rapid and continuous process.
A very minor portion of this heat (5-10%) is conducted to
work piece.
 Zone ‘B’ (friction zone), the heat is generated mainly
due to friction between moving chip and tool face and
partly due to secondary deformation of B.U.E.
 In zone ‘C’ ( work piece-tool contact zone), the heat is
generated due to burnishing furnace and the heat in this
zone goes on increasing with time as the wear land on the
tool develops and goes on increasing.
- The direction of maximum heat flow from these zones to chip of
work piece is indicated by arrows in figure.
- Of course, some heat flows in other directions also.
- It will be noted that each of the three zones leads to rise
of temperature at the tool-chip interface and
- it is found that the maximum temperature occurs slightly away
from the cutting edge and not at the cutting edge.
 This temperature plays a major role in the formation of
crater on the tool face and leads to failure of tool
softening and thermal stresses.
 The temperature at the chip-tool interface can be
determined either by tool work thermo-couple or
calorimetric setup.
Heat generated in metal cutting,

Q=

 Heat dissipated by chip,

Qc=

The ratio of Qc/Q is the indication of percentage of heat that can be

dissipated by the chips.
The ratio is fairly independent of cutting speed except at very low
speed,
but the temperature of the tool rake face or tool-chip interface
increases with the increase in cutting speed and is twice the
temperature of chips.
- The distribution of heart in chips, tool and work versus
cutting speed plotted on graph, and it is found that
distribution of heat in chips, tool and work piece is in the
ratio of 80:10:10, when cutting with carbide cutters at
speed above 30 m/.min.
 - The various factors which lead to maximum tool temperature
are cutting speed, feed, properties of material etc.
- These machining variables affect the size of shear zone and
chip tool contact length and thereby, the area over which heat
is distributed, shorter length of contact of chip with tool results
in severe temperature rise.
- Cutting temperature depends upon several factors like work
piece and tool material, cutting conditions, cutting fluid and
tool geometry.
 - If a material has high tensile strength and hardness, more
energy is required for chip formation and more heat is
generated.
 - If thermal conductivity is high, then temperature
developed will be low.
 - Cutting temperature is also dependent on cutting
condition, cutting speed, feed and depth of cut.
Tool life

 During machining, the cutting edge of the tool

gradually wears out and it doesnot perform
satisfactorily.
 When the wear reaches a certain stage it is said that
the tool has lost its ability and its life is over.
 The tool life is defined as the time elapsed between,
two successive grindings.
The tool life can be defined in following different ways:

 The time elapsed between two successive grindings.

 The period during which a tool cuts satisfactory.
 The total time accumulated before tool failure occurs.
 A blunt tool causes chatter in machining, poor surface
finish, increase in cutting forces and power
consumption and overheating of tool

 Tool life is expressed in minutes.

Factors Affecting Tool Life:
The following factors play an important
role in tool life:
 Cutting speed.
 Feed rate and Depth of cut
 Hardness of work piece.
 Microstructure of work piece.
 Tool material.
 Tool geometry.
 Type of cutting fluid and its method of application.
 Nature of cutting.
 Grain size of work piece.
 Rigidity of work piece machine-tool system.
Measuring tool life:

The tool life may be measured in the following

ways:-
 Number pieces machined between tool sharpening
 Time of actual operations, i.e. the time the tool is
in contact with the job
 Total time of operation
 Equivalent cutting speed
 Volume of material removes between tool
sharpening
 Taylor’s Tool Life Equation.
 At the beginning of this century in 1907, Frederic Winslow
Taylor developed the relationship between tool life and
cutting speed based upon his exhaustive experimental
work.
 This classical Taylor’s equation is a s follows:
V Tn = C

V = cutting speed – m/ min

T = Tool life – minutes
C = constant depending upon cutting conditions and work
material ( machining constants)
n = an exponent, values may be taken for ‘n’
= 0.01 to 0.15 for HSS tools
= 0.2 to 0.4 for Carbide tools
= 0.4 to 0.6 for Ceramic tools
Coolants Or Cutting Fluids
 During metal cutting, heat is generated as a result of
the work done.
 Heat carried away from the tool and work by means of
cutting fluids, which at the same time reduces the
friction between the tool and chip and between tool
and work and also facilitates the chip formation.
 Cutting fluids usually in the form of a liquid are
applied to the chip formation zone to improve the
cutting conditions compared to dry cutting conditions.
 If sufficient quantity of cutting fluid is properly
applied, heat can be removed almost as fast as it is
generated and the temperature of the tool, work piece
and chip can be kept within limit.
Sources Of Heat In Metal Cutting

 The main features likely to cause excessive heat

during a metal cutting operation are:-
 Cutting speed tool high
 Poor surface finish on the cutting face of tool
 Worn or incorrectly ground tool
 Formation of B .U.E on cutting face of tool
 Friction between tool and work piece
Functions Of Cutting Fluid
The various functions of cutting fluid are:-
 - It cools cutting tool and work piece by carrying away
the heat produced.
 - It lubricates the cutting tool and thus reducing
coefficient of friction between chip and tool
 - The use of cutting fluid gives better surface finish
 - It causes chips to break up into small pieces
 - It prevents corrosion of work and machine
 - It washes away the chips from the tool
 - Removal of heat from the cutting zone also reduces
thermal distortion of the work and permits improved
dimensional control.
 - It enables the maximum possible cutting speed to be
used thus reducing time cost and cost of production.
Properties Of Cutting Fluid
A cutting fluid should possess the following
properties-
 It should have high specific heat, high heat
conductivity, and high film coefficient
 It should be odorless
 It should be non-corrosive to work and machine
 It should be non-toxic to operator
 It should have low viscosity to permit free flow of
liquid
 It should permit clear view of work, which is specially
desirable in precision work
 It should be safe with regards to fire and accidental
hazards
 It should be stable in use and storage.
Types Of Cutting Fluids
 The type of cutting fluid to be used depends on the
work material and characteristic of the machining
process.
 Cutting fluids are classified in seven main groups.
These include:-
 water,
 soluble oil,
 straight oils,
 mixed oils,
 chemical additive oils,
 chemical compound oils and
 solid lubricants.
 Water: water, either plain or containing alkali, salt
or water soluble additive or soap are sometimes
used.

Soluble oils: soluble oils are emulsions composed

of around 807 or more water, soap and mineral oil.
The soaps acts as emulsifying agent and water
increases cooling effect.

 Straight oils: (I) the straight oils may be straight

mineral oils, kerosene, low viscosity petroleum
fraction, such as mineral seal or higher viscosity
mineral oils. (II) Straight fixed fatty oils consisting
animal, vegetable or synthetic equivalent, land oil
etc
Mixed oils: This is a combination of straight mineral
oil and straight fatty oil.
Chemical additive oils: straight oil or mixed oil
when mixed up with sulphur or chlorine is known as
chemical additive oil.
Chemical compounds: these compounds consist
mainly of a rust inhibitor, such as sodium nitrate with
high percentage of water.
Solid lubricant: stick waxes and bar soaps are
sometimes used as a convenient means of applying
lubrication to the cutting tool.
Benefits Achieved With The Use Of Cutting
Fluid
Various benefits achieved by using cutting fluids
are:-
1.Increased tool life: by using cutting fluids, the
cutting temperature is reduced and therefore,
tool life gets increased
2.Better surface finish: by using cutting fluids
better surface finish can be obtained
3.Lower tool forces: by using cutting fluids, the
coefficient of friction between chip and tool
is reduced and this reduces the tool forces.