UNIT 1: Machining by Cutting

02 October 2023 14:33

Introduction

A machine tool is defined as one which while holding the cutting tools would be able to remove metal from a workpiece, in order to generate the requisite job of given size,
configuration and finish.

Primary manufacturing processes: - 1. casting

2. metal working process

(Fig. 1)

Traditional process rely on difference in the hardness of the cutting tool to that of the workpiece to remove metal.

Various metal removing process include-

• Turning machine
• Drilling machine
• Boring machine
• Milling machine
• Grinding machine
• Shaping and planing machine
• Gear cutting machine
• Sawing machine
• Unconventional machining machines

A single-point cutting tool is used for cutting, shaping, boring, and planing because here a single cutting edge removes or cuts the whole material in one pass. Whereas, in
a double point cutting tool, two cutting edges participate equally to remove material in one pass. As a result, the chip load reduces on both cutting edges.

A multi-point cutting tool has two to hundreds of cutting edges (for example, TCT blades used as wood cutting tools). Double or multi-point cutting tools are primarily used
for drilling, milling, reaming, and knurlings applications.

IMPORTANT SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SINGLE POINT AND MULTI-POINT CUTTING TOOLS

• Both single-point and multi-point cutting tools are used for metal cutting and excess material removal. Multi-point cutters are often regarded as aluminum cutting tools.
• Both are utilized in traditional machining processes. However, different machining method requires a different type of cutting tools.
• Single point and multi-point cutters, both require sharp cutting edges. But, cutting-edge numbers are not similar.
• For both types of metal cutting tools, geometry and material of workpiece are important factors.

Chip Formation (Fig- 2)

Rake angle-
It is the angle between the face of the tool called rake face and the normal to the machining direction. This angle specifies the ease with which a metal is cut. Higher the rake

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 It is the angle between the face of the tool called rake face and the normal to the machining direction. This angle specifies the ease with which a metal is cut. Higher the rake
angle, better is the cutting and less are the cutting forces. Increasing the rake angle reduces the metal backup available at the tool rake face. This reduces the strength of the
tool tip as well as the heat dissipation through the tool. This is generally of the order 15 degrees for high speed tools cutting mild steel. It is also possible to have zero or
negative rake angle, which are used in case of highly brittle tool materials such as carbide or diamond for giving extra strength to the tool tip.

Clearance angle
It is the angle between the machined surface and the underside of the tool called flank face. It is designed in a way that it increases the cutting force. A very large clearance
angle reduces the strength of the tool tip. Hence normal order ranges from 5-6 degrees.

Cutting Speed (V)- It is the speed with which the cutting tool moves through the work material. (m/s)
Feed Rate (f)- It is the small relative movement per cycle (per revolution or per stroke) of the cutting tool in a direction usually normal to the cutting speed direction.
Depth of Cut (d) - It is the normal distance between the unmachined surface and the machined surface.

Process of Chip Formation-

• The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately compressed, first elastically and then plastically.
• This zone is traditionally called shear zone, because the material in the final form is removed by shear from the parent metal.
• The actual separation of the metal starts as a yielding or fracture, depending on the cutting conditions, starting from the cutting tool tip.
• Then the deformed metal called chip, flows over the tool (rake) face.
• If the friction between the tool rake face and the underside of the chip is considerable, then the chip get further deformed which is termed as secondary deformation.
• The chip sliding over the tool rake face is lifted away from the tool and the resultant curvature of the chip is the chip curl.

Plastic deformation can be caused by yielding, in which strained layers of material get displaced over other layers along the slip planes, which coincide with the direction of
maximum shear stress.
Chip Types

1. Discontinuous Chip-
- When brittle material like cast iron are cut, the deformed material gets fractured very easily and thus the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous segment.
- In this, the deformed material get ruptures periodically.
- This chips are easier from the chip disposal viewpoint.
- The cutting forces become unstable with the variation coinciding with the fracturing cycle.
- They generally provide a better surface finish.
- For ductile material, they causes poor surface finish and low tool life.
- Higher depths of cut(large chip thickness), low cutting speed and small rake angles are likely to produce.

2. Continuous Chip
- Produced when machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting speeds.
- It flows along the rake face.
- It is possible because ductile metal that flows along the shear plane instead of rupture.
- It can be assumed that each layer of metal flows along the slip plane till it stopped by work hardening. Each of these layer gets welded to previous ones because of the high
temperature, thus forming a continuous chip.
- For sharp cutting edge, small chip thickness (fine feed), large rake angle, high cutting speed, ductile work materials and less friction between chip tool interface through
efficient lubrication.
- This is the most desirable form of chips, since surface finish obtained is good and cutting is smooth.
- It also helps in having higher tool life and lower power consumption.
- Due to large coil of chips, disposal is a problem.

3. Continuous Chip with BUE

- When the friction between tool and chip is having high while machining ductile materials, some particles of chip adhere to the rake face near the tool tip.
- When such sizeable material piles up on the rake face, it acts as a cutting edge in place of actual cutting edge. This is termed as built- up edge (BUE)
- By virtue of work hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material.
- As the size of BUE grows larger, it becomes unstable and parts adhere to the chip underside and partly to the machined surface. This causes finished surface to be rough.
- The life of cutting tool increases. BUE is not harmful while rough machining.
- Low cutting speed, high feed and low rake angle are observed.
- Higher the work hardenability, rougher is the machined surface produced.
- Formation of BUE on the tool is brought about by high normal loads on the tool rake face leading to adhesion between chip and tool.
- The adhesion at chip tool interface is very strong and different from the conventional adhesion characteristics of the material pair concerned.

Chip control is an essential aspect of automated machining. The basic functional elements of chip control are efficient breaking and effective removal of chips. The former
helps to facilitate the latter; hence much of the fundamental work in the past has been on finding ways and means to break chips efficiently to enable effective removal from
the machines and the subsequent recycling/disposal. Figure 1, which shows the most influencing factors on chip breaking, demonstrates the complex nature of the chip
breaking process. Each of the eight factors shown has a profound effect on chip breaking. Greater understanding of these influencing factors and their interactions would be
essential for achieving efficient chip breaking and hence chip control. Chip control issues often lead to other problems such as shortened tool life, conveyor stoppages and
poor surface finishes, while also creating safety hazards. These concerns cost shops countless hours of production time.

1. Identifying Chip Features

While chips may sometimes be viewed in a negative light, they do bring advantages to the cutting operation when properly handled. In almost every metalcutting process,
excess heat is generated. The excess heat only has a few paths of escape: the environment, the workpiece, the cutting tool and the chip. For steels using the optimum cutting
speed, dry machining will result in about 75 percent of the heat leaving with the chip, 10 percent in the material and 15 percent transmitted to the cutting edge. Heat-
resistant alloys will realize less benefit, but even a modest 25 percent leaving with the chips will help with tool life.
2. Implement Chipbreakers
Long, stringy chips are undesirable, so the goal in any tool design is to break the chip up by changing its path/curl. While in broad terms there are three options for chip
control, the most effective way is typically by incorporating a chipbreaker. Modestly priced and offering high returns, chipbreakers can either be built into the cutting face
of the tool or brazed/clamped onto the cutting tool. In some cases, the holder of the cutting tool can be used as a chipbreaker.

3. Use High-Pressure Coolant

High-pressure coolant can serve as a highly effective chip control solution. It has an intermediate cost because of additional equipment purchase and maintenance effort, but
it provides a lot of benefits with improved tool life and stability.

Shear Zone
If the shear plane model is considered to be thin, the transition from undeformed material to deformed material to take place along a thin plane, the acceleration across the
plane has to be infinity for the velocity to change instantaneously from the cutting speed, hence impossible to exist.

Thus the shear plane has to be thick for the transition in velocities and the shear stresses can be realistically accounted for.

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 Thus the shear plane has to be thick for the transition in velocities and the shear stresses can be realistically accounted for.

Shear angle- Angle made by the shear plane with the cutting speed. Higher the shear angle, better is the cutting performance.

Tool Geometry
Single point cutting tool:
The shank and a sharpened cutting portion called the point make up this tool. The face (along which the chips slide as they are cut by the tool), the side flank or major flank,
the end flank or minor flank, and the base define the tool’s point.
There are two types of cutting tools: Single point cutting tool and Multiple point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tool can be made by Ceramics, High carbon steel and Cemented carbide. And it contains following parts: -

This is the tool’s main body. The tool is held in place by the shank. The flank of the tool refers to the area below and adjacent to the cutting edge. The face of the tool is the
surface on which the chips slide.
The intersection between the flank and the tool’s base is known as the heel. It’s a curved section near the tool’s bottom. The intersection of the side cutting edge and the end
cutting edge is known as the nose. With a sharp point on the nose, the nose radius will give extended life and a good surface polish. The cutting edge of a tool is the edge on
the tool’s face that removes material from the workpiece.

Different angles we are using in the single point cutting tool.

Side cutting edge angle:
The lead angle is another name for this angle. This is the angle formed by the tool shank’s side cutting edge and the tool shank’s side.
End cutting angle:
This is the angle formed by the tool shank’s end cutting edge and a line parallel to it.
Side relief angle:
It’s the angle formed by a line perpendicular to the tool’s base and measured at a right angle to the end flank between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the tool’s base and measured at a right angle to the end flank.
End relief angle:
It’s the angle formed by a line perpendicular to the tool’s base and measured at a right angle to the end flank and the section of the end flank immediately below the end
cutting edge.
Back rack angle:
It’s the angle formed by the tool face and a line running parallel to the tool’s base and perpendicular to the side cutting edge.
If the side cutting edge slopes downwards from the point towards the shank, the back rack angle is positive; if the slope is reversed, the back rack angle is negative.
Side rack angle:
It’s the angle formed by the tool face and a line parallel to the tool’s base, measured in a plane perpendicular to the tool’s base and side cutting edge.
The slope of the tool’s face from the cutting edge is determined by this angle.
If the slope is toward the cutting edge, the side rack angle is negative. If the slope is away from the cutting edge, the side rack angle is positive.
https://mppolytechnic.ac.in/mp-staff/notes_upload_photo/MP71learnmechanicalcom-SinglePointCuttingToolDefinitionTypesGeometryNomenclatureAnglePDF.pdf

Tool Specification in different system

https://www.minaprem.com/machining/cutter/designation/various-systems-of-tool-designation-asa-system-ors-system-nrs-system/#:~:text=NRS%20system%20of%
20tool%20designation,nose%20radius%20value%20in%20mm.

Orthogonal Cutting
A general purpose metal cutting operation is 3D and termed as oblique cutting. The obliquity comes from the angle between the cutting speed vector and the cutting edge of
the tool.
Orthogonal cutting is when the cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity. Normal turning is oblique.

Merchant's Theory- (Fig 3)

Assumptions-
i. The tool is perfectly sharp and has no contact along the clearance face.
ii. The surface where shear is occurring is a plane.
iii. The cutting edge is a straight line extending perpendicular to the direction of motion and generates a plane surface as the work moves past it.
iv. The chip does not flow to either side or no side spread.
v. Uncut chip thickness is constant.
vi. Width of tool is greater than width of the work.
vii. A continuous chip is produced without any BUE
viii. Work moves with a uniform velocity.
ix. The stress on shear plane is uniformly distributed.

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ix. The stress on shear plane is uniformly distributed.

https://www.minaprem.com/machining/cutter/designation/various-systems-of-tool-designation-asa-system-ors-system-nrs-system/#:~:text=NRS%20system%20of%
20tool%20designation,nose%20radius%20value%20in%20mm.

1. Ernst-Merchant Theory:
According to this theory:

This is based on the assumptions:

(i) That expenditure is minimum in the process, i.e., shear will take plane in a direction in which energy required for shearing is minimum.
(ii) That shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains constant.
In the Merchant’s theory, it was seen that:

Relationship Between Cutting Velocity, Shear Velocity and Chip Flow Velocity

In orthogonal machining, cutting velocity (VC) , chip flow velocity (Vf) and shear velocity (VS) are interrelated. These three velocity vectors together form a triangle,
which is called velocity triangle in machining. A typical velocity triangle is depicted below. Here length of the sides of the triangle indicates the magnitude of corresponding
velocity. The triangle is based on the assumptions of orthogonal machining (chip is flowing in orthogonal direction) and single shear plane (indicates shearing is occurring
in a concentrated 2-D shear plane rather than through a region). It is worth mentioning that the velocity triangle need not necessarily be one right angle triangle under all
circumstances; it will occur only in specific cases.

The chip flow velocity (Vf) vector should be parallel to the rake surface of the cutting tool. Since cutting velocity (VC) vector is always horizontal in the view as shown
above, so the angle between the VC and Vf depends on orthogonal rake angle (γO) of the cutting tool. In fact, the angle between VC and Vf will be (90° – γO). Since γO
can be either negative, zero or positive, so algebraic sum is required to consider.
By definition, shear angle (βO) is the angle of orientation of the assumed shear plane from the cutting velocity (VC) vector, as measured on orthogonal plane (πO). Again,
the shear velocity (VS) vector is drawn along the assumed shear plane. Thus, angle between cutting velocity (VC) vector and shear velocity (VS) vector will be equal to
orthogonal shear angle (βO).

When two angles of a triangle are known, the third angle can be easily calculated because sum of all three angels of any triangle is 180°. Therefore, angle between shear
velocity (VS) vector and chip velocity (Vf) vector be [180 – (90° – γO) – βO] = (90° + γO – βO).
Since all three angles of the triangle is known, so Sine Rule can be applied. Law of sine states that, for an arbitrary triangle, the ratio between the length of a particular cord
and the sine of its opposite angle is a constant. Hence, for this particular velocity triangle, the following equation can be written. This equation is very important in
mechanics of machining as it provides an interrelation between cutting velocity, chip velocity and shear velocity.

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