 How chips are produced during machining.

 Factors involved in temperature rise and its

effects.
 How cutting tools wear and fail.
 Surface finish and integrity of parts produced
by machining.
 Machinability of materials.
 Cutting processes remove material from the surface of a
workpiece by producing chips. Some of the more common cutting
processes are as follow:

1. Turning, in which the workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool

removes a layer of material as it moves to the left.
2. Cutting-off operation, where the cutting tool moves radially
inward and separates the right piece from the bulk of the
blank.
3. Slab-milling operation, in which a rotating cutting tool
removes a layer of material from the surface of the
workpiece.
4. End-milling operation, in which a rotating cutter travels along
a certain depth in the workpiece and produces a cavity.
 Fig 21.1 shows some examples of common
machining operations.
 Fig 21.2 shows the schematic illustration of the turning
operation showing various features.
 The factors that influence the cutting process are outlined in
Table 21.1.
 In order to appreciate the contents of this table, let’s now
identify the major independent variables in the cutting process
as follows:
◦ (a) tool material and coatings;
◦ (b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness;
◦ (c) workpiece material and condition;
◦ (d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut;
◦ (e) cutting fluids;
◦ (f) characteristics of the machine tool; and
◦ (g) workholding and fixturing.
 Dependent variables in cutting are those that
are influenced by changes in the independent
variables listed above, and include: (a) type of
chip produced, (b) force and energy dissipated
during cutting, (c) temperature rise in the
workpiece, the tool, and the chip, (d) tool wear
and failure, and (e) surface finish and surface
integrity of the workpiece.
 A typical question posed is which of the
independent variables should be changed first,
and to what extent, if (a) the surface finish of
the workpiece being cut is poor and
unacceptable, (b) the cutting tool wears rapidly
and becomes dull, (c) the workpiece becomes
very hot, and (d) the tool begins to vibrate and
chatter.
 The four main types are:
1. Continuous
2. Built-up edge
3. Serrated or segmented
4. Discontinuous
Continuous chips
 Continuous chips usually are formed with ductile
materials, machined at high cutting speeds
and/or high rake angles.
 The deformation of the material takes place
along a narrow shear zone called the primary
shear zone.
 Continuous chips may develop a secondary
shear zone because of high friction at the tool–
chip interface; this zone becomes thicker as
friction increases.
 Deformation in continuous chips also may take
place along a wide primary shear zone with
curved boundaries.
 This problem can be alleviated with chip
breakers (to follow) or by changing
parameters, such as cutting speed, feed, depth
of cut, and by using cutting fluids.
Built-up edge chips
 A built-up edge (BUE) consists of layers of
material from the workpiece that gradually are
deposited on the tool tip—hence the term
built-up.
 Built-up edge commonly is observed in
practice.
 It is a major factor that adversely affects
surface finish, however, a thin, stable BUE
usually is regarded as desirable because it
reduces tool wear by protecting its rake face.
Built-up edge chips
 The tendency for BUE formation can be
reduced by one or more of the following
means:
1. Increase the cutting speeds
2. Decrease the depth of cut
3. Increase the rake angle
4. Use a sharp tool
5. Use an effective cutting fluid
6. Use a cutting tool that has lower chemical
affinity for the workpiece material
 Serrated chips are semicontinuous chips with
large zones of low shear strain and small
zones of high shear strain, hence the latter
zone is called shear localization.
 Metals with low thermal conductivity and
strength that decreases sharply with
temperature (thermal softening) exhibit this
behavior, most notably titanium.
Discontinuous chips
 Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be
attached firmly or loosely to each other.
 Discontinuous chips usually form under the following
conditions:
1. Brittle workpiece materials, because they do not have
the capacity to undergo the high shear strains involved
in cutting.
2. Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and
impurities or have structures such as the graphite
flakes in gray cast iron.
3. Very low or very high cutting speeds
4. Large depths of cut.
5. Low rake angles.
6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid.
7. Low stiffness of the toolholder or the machine
tool, thus allowing vibration and chatter to
occur.
 Because of the discontinuous nature of chip
formation, forces continually vary during
cutting.
 Consequently, the stiffness or rigidity of the
cutting-tool holder, the workholding devices,
and the machine tool are important in cutting
with serrated chips as well as with
discontinuous chips.
Chip Curl
 In all cutting operations performed on metals,
as well as nonmetallic materials such as
plastics and wood, chips develop a curvature
(chip curl) as they leave the workpiece surface.
 Among factors affecting the chip curl are:
1. The distribution of stresses in the primary and
secondary shear zones.
2. Thermal effects.
3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
material.
4. The geometry of the cutting tool
5. Cutting fluid
 Generally, as the depth of cut decreases, the
radius of curvature decreases; that is, the chip
becomes curlier.
 Also, cutting fluids can make chips become
more curly, thus reducing the tool–chip contact
area and concentrating the heat closer to the tip
of the tool. As a result, tool wear increases.
Chip Breakers
 Continuous and long chips are undesirable as
they tend to become entangled and severely
interfere with machining operations and also
become a potential safety hazard.
 Fig 21.7(a) shows the schematic illustration of
the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip
breaker decreases the radius of curvature of
the chip and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip
breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting
tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip
breakers. Most cutting tools used now are
inserts with built-in chip-breaker features.
 Chip breakers have traditionally been a piece of
metal clamped to the tool’s rake face, which bend
and break the chip.
 However, most modern cutting tools and inserts
now have built-in chip-breaker features of various
designs.
 Fig 21.8 shows the chips produced in turning: (a)
tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and
breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away
from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and
breaks off.
 In interrupted-cutting operations (such as milling),
chip breakers generally are not necessary, since
the chips already have finite lengths.
Controlled contact on tools
 Cutting tools can be designed so that the tool–chip
contact length is reduced by recessing the rake
face of the tool some distance away from its tip.
 This reduction in contact length affects chip-
formation mechanics.
 Primarily, it reduces the cutting forces and, thus,
the energy and temperature.
 Determination of an optimum length is important
as too small a contact length would concentrate
the heat at the tool tip, thus increasing wear.
Cutting nonmetallic materials
 A variety of chips are encountered in cutting
thermoplastics, depending on the type of
polymer and process parameters, such as
depth of cut, tool geometry, and cutting
speed.
 Many of the discussions concerning metals
also are applicable generally to polymers.
 Because they are brittle, thermosetting plastics
and ceramics generally produce discontinuous
chips.
 The majority of machining operations involve
tool shapes that are three-dimensional, thus
the cutting is oblique.
 Whereas in orthogonal cutting, the chip slides
directly up the face of the tool, in oblique
cutting, the chip is helical and at an angle i,
called the inclination angle.
 Fig 21.9(a) shows the schematic illustration of
cutting with an oblique tool. Note the direction
of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the
inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced
with tools at increasing inclination angles.
 Fig 21.10(a) shows the schematic illustration
of a right-hand cutting tool. The various
angles on these tools and their effects on
machining.
 Although these tools traditionally have been
produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have
been replaced largely with Fig 21.10(b) inserts
made of carbides and other materials of
various shapes and sizes.
Shaving and skiving
 Thin layers of material can be removed from
straight or curved surfaces by a process similar
to the use of a plane to shave wood.
 Shaving is useful particularly in improving the
surface finish and dimensional accuracy of
sheared parts and punched slugs.
 Skiving = Shave for long material. Shave with
sharp cutting tool that moves tangentially
across the length of the piece