Machine Processes: Cutting

MACHINE MANUFACTURING REPORT 2

茱席拉 | Machine Manufacturing | 16/06/2022

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MACHINING PROCESSES AND MACHINE TOOLS

Machining is a broad term that refers to a group of processes that involve the
removal of material and the modification of the surfaces of a workpiece after it has
been manufactured using various methods. As a result, machining includes
secondary and finishing operations. However, in general, the use of machining
implies that a part could not have been produced to the final desired specifications
using the primary processes used in their manufacture and that additional
operations are required. Furthermore, despite their benefits, material-removal
processes have the following drawbacks:

o They waste material (although the amount may be relatively small).

o The processes generally takes longer than other processes.
o They generally require more energy than do forming and shaping.
o They can have adverse effects on the surface quality and properties of the
product.

Machining is made up of a variety of material-removal processes. This report will go

over cutting, which is typically done with single-point or multipoint cutting tools,
each with a distinct shape.

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

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WHAT IS CUTTING?
“Cutting may be defined as a process in which new surfaces are created in a solid by
the use of a tool.”

(Williams & Patel, 2016)

Mechanics of Cutting
The major independent variables in the cutting process are: (a) tool material and
coatings; (b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness; (c) workpiece material and
condition; (d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut; (e) cutting fluids; (f)
characteristics of the machine tool; and (g) work holding and fixturing.

Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by changes in the
dependent variables listed above and include: (a) type of chip produced, (b) force
and energy dissipated during cutting, (c) temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool,
and the chip, (d) tool wear and failure, and (e) surface finish and surface integrity of
the workpiece.
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The following table contains factors influencing Machining Operations.

PARAMETER INFLUENCE
Cutting speed, depth of cut, Forces, power, temperature rise,
feed, cutting fluids tool life, type of chip, surface finish
and integrity
Tool angles As above; influence on chip flow
direction; resistance to tool wear
and chipping
Continuous chip Good surface finish; steady cutting
forces; undesirable, especially in
automated machinery
Built-up edge chip Poor surface finish and integrity; if
thin and stable, edge can protect
tool surfaces
Discontinuous chip Desirable for ease of chip disposal;
fluctuating cutting forces; can affect
surface finish and cause vibration
and chatter
Temperature rise Influences tool life, particularly
crater wear and dimensional
accuracy of workpiece; may cause
thermal damage to workpiece
surface
Tool wear Influences surface finish and
integrity, dimensional accuracy,
temperature rise, forces and power
Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish,
forces, and power, and type of chip

One of the most important issues that must be addressed in mechanical machining
is the quality of cutting-tool materials. The use of modern composition ceramic
cutting tools can help to improve cutting tool performance. Surface treatment, as
well as hot pressing and spark plasma sintering – the two main processes used to
manufacture such tools – may enable this.
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Types of Chips Produced in Metal Cutting

Several factors influence chip formation during metal cutting, including:

➢ Mechanical properties of a ➢ Cutting fluid used while

workpiece machining

➢ Depth of cut ➢ Cutting region temperature

➢ Tool rake angle ➢ Required surface finishes

➢ Cutting velocity ➢ Friction coefficient

➢ Feed rake

There are four main types of chips that are formed during metal cutting: Continuous
chips, Built-up edge chips, Serrated chips and Discontinuous chips.
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Continuous
Continuous chips have a ribbon-like structure (long coil) with the same thickness
along the length. This type of chip is formed when cutting ductile material (such as
low carbon steel, copper, brass, and aluminum alloys) at high cutting velocities and
tool cutting edge pressure in compression and shear.

Built-up edge
The friction between the tool-chip interfaces is high during the cutting process,
causing the chip material to weld itself to the tool rake surface near the tooltip,
resulting in a build-up edge (BUE). It can be severe if the chip constantly rubs
against the tool surface. It serves as the tool's cutting edge. The build-up edge's
formation is temporary and unstable.

Serrated or segmented
Serrated chips are also known as non-homogeneous chips and segmented chips.
Because of an alternating large zone of high shear strain followed by a small zone of
low shear strain, this chip has a saw tooth appearance. It becomes semi-continuous
because of the cyclic chip formation. This type of chip formation occurs when high
cutting velocities are used to machine difficult-to-machine materials (such as
titanium alloys, nickel-based superalloys, and austenitic stainless steel).

Discontinuous
Chips are formed in discontinuous segments while machining brittle materials (such
as cast iron, bronze, and high carbon steel) at low cutting velocities. These segments
are only loosely connected. During deformation, the material loses its ductility and
fractures, while periodic ruptures occur on the chip flow. The cutting forces vary
frequently during chip formation.
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IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING THE TYPES OF CHIPS

It is critical to investigate the types of chips produced because they have a significant
impact on the surface finish produced, cutting forces, and the overall cutting
operation. Continuous chips, for example, are generally associated with good
surface finish and consistent cutting forces. Serrated chips can have the same effect
as built-up edge chips in terms of surface finish. Discontinuous chips typically result
in poor surface finish and dimensional accuracy, as well as fluctuating cutting forces.
As a result, the type of chip is an excellent predictor of the overall quality of the
cutting operation.

Types of cutting Tool Materials

According to the material used the tools are classified into:

• Carbon tool steel • Ceramics tool

• High speed steel tool (HSS) • Cemented carbide

• Cubic boron nitride Tool • Diamond tool

(CBN)
 Fig.: Examples of Cutting Tools

As stated in a journal by (Grigoriev et al., 2019),

To remain competitive, modern manufacturing companies must use the most

advanced and efficient technologies. Machining processes are one of the most
effective methods for producing products with high accuracy and appropriate
surface roughness. More complex product geometries present new production
challenges for cutting tool machining processes.

Mechanical properties of product materials, particularly hardness, are being

developed and improved. All traditional or conventional machining processes, such
as drilling, turning, and milling, rely on the cutting tool's hardness being greater
than the hardness of the material being cut. Cutting tools in several machining
processes have a short lifetime due to gradually decreasing hardness, and as a result,
the cost of machining rises.
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Why have so many different types of cutting-tool materials been

developed over the years and why are they still being developed
further?
Cutting tool development is critical for improving mechanical properties,
particularly in high-speed, long-duration machining. However, the production of
cutting tools is fraught with difficulties for a variety of reasons. The material must
first meet mechanical property requirements. Second, traditional sintering methods
are limited in terms of the number of materials and the time required to complete
the sintering cycle, which is reflected in the product cost. These are significant
limitations in the production of these tools. Furthermore, the materials used in
cutting tools must be able to withstand extreme cutting conditions such as high
temperatures and friction between the workpiece and the cutting tool surface. To
meet these requirements, cutting tool materials should have a variety of properties
such as those listed below in Table 22.2.

The reasons for the wide availability of cutting-tool materials are best understood
by reviewing the top eight parameters in the first column of Table 22.2. The type of
workpiece material machined, the type of operation, and the required surface finish
and dimensional accuracy are all factors that influence the selection of a cutting-
tool material. Toughness and impact strength, for example, are required for
interrupted cutting operations such as milling. Hot hardness is important in
operations where a lot of heat is generated, such as high cutting speeds. If a very fine
surface finish is required, materials such as ceramics and diamond are ideal.
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What is TOOL LIFE?

“The time between two successive re-sharpenings with which the tool effectively
cuts the material is referred to as tool life. Tool life is important in production work
because a lot of time is wasted when a tool is re-sharpened and reset on the machine.

Tool life is the amount of time it takes for a new cutting tool to work satisfactorily
before it needs to be reconditioned or replaced.”

("Tool Life, Taylor's Tool Life Equation, Calculation, Factor", 2022)

Is it desirable to have a high or low (a) n value and (b) C value in

the Taylor tool-life equation?

High n values are desirable because they allow us to cut at higher speeds for the
same tool life, increasing productivity. High n values, on the other hand, also
provide longer tool life for the same cutting speed. It is worth noting that as n
approaches zero, tool life becomes very sensitive to cutting speed. Regarding C, keep
in mind that its magnitude is the same as the cutting speed at T = 1. As a result,
having a high C value is preferable because we can cut at faster speeds.
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References (APA):

Grigoriev, S., Fedorov, S., & Hamdy, K. (2019). Materials, properties, manufacturing
methods and cutting performance of innovative ceramic cutting tools − a
review. Manufacturing Review, 6, 19. https://doi.org/10.1051/mfreview/2019016

Williams, J., & Patel, Y. (2016). Fundamentals of cutting. Interface Focus, 6(3),
20150108. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsfs.2015.0108

Different types of chips in metal cutting (Pdf). Engineeringtribe.com. (2020).

Retrieved 15 June 2022, from https://www.engineeringtribe.com/2020/11/what-are-
the-types-of-chips-in-metal-cutting.html.

Tool Life, Taylor's Tool Life Equation, Calculation, Factor. Mechical.com. (2022).
Retrieved 15 June 2022, from https://www.mechical.com/2022/01/tool-life-taylors-
tool-life-equation.html.

Mecholic: Different Types of Cutting Tools Materials and Their Properties.

Mecholic.com. (2016). Retrieved 15 June 2022, from
https://www.mecholic.com/2016/02/different-types-of-cutting-tools-materials-
and-their-properties.html.

Kalpakjian, S., & Schmid, S. (2010). Manufacturing engineering and technology: sixth
edition in Si units (6th ed., pp. 553-600). Prentice Hall.

Figures from Microsoft, Bing, Google, and Manufacturing Engineering textbook.