Cluster 1

Reference Material
Course: Manufacturing Technology (A3)

1. It’s all about Generatrix and Directrix

 The speed (f) with uncut portion of work piece is subjected is called as feed
motion (Secondary motion).
 The path generated by cutting / primary motion is called generatrix while as line
/ path form by feed motion is called as directrix.
 Type of machine Genetrix Directrix Type of work
tool piece produced
Lathe Circular Line Cylindrical
Cutting motion Feed motion
( work piece ) (Cutting tool )
Drill Circular Line Cylindrical hole
Cutting motion Feed motion
(Twist drill) (Cutting tool )
Shaper Line Line Flat
Cutting motion Feed motion
(Cutting tool ) ( work piece )
Milling Line Line Flat
Cutting motion Feed motion
(Multi point Cutting ( work piece )
tool )

2. Elements of metal cutting

 3. Expression for shear angle and velocity relations in orthogonal cutting

‘r ‘ is called cutting ratio/chip-thickness ratio/chip-compression factor while as 1/r

is known as chip reduction factor/ coefficient.
 4. Concept of Chip removal
 During the plastic deformation, shearing of the atoms take place this in turn leads to
dislocation (edge and screw) to occur in the material.
 This shearing action takes place along the slip plane or the shear plane.
 Due to the dislocation, the atoms are separated and reformed and dislocation increases the
ductility of the material.
 As a result the material flows plastically up to a point after which ductility decreases and
the material becomes harder the process is called as work hardening.
 Beyond this point the material becomes brittle and harder and with the further increase in
the load leads to the fracture in the material.
 During the dislocation taking place the atoms are subjected to severe tension and
compressive force as a result tensile and compressive strain field is created which
eventually increases the hardness of the material.
 As the metal approaches the shear plane, it does not deform until the shear plane is
reached. It then undergoes substantial amount of shear as it crosses a thin primary shear
zone.
 There is no further plastic flow as the chip proceeds up the face of the tool.
 The small amount of secondary shear along the tool face is generated as the chip flows
over the tool in turn generating the friction.
 Mechanism of chip formation in machining ductile materials
  Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress reaches or exceeds the shear
strength of that work material in the deformation region, yielding or slip takes place
resulting shear deformation in that region and the plane of maximum shear stress.
 But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip quickly diminishes and
finally disappears while that region moves along the tool rake surface towards and then
goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.
 As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In
the mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed
by yielding and shear.

 Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials

 During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. due to
wedging action of the cutting edge.
 At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes place.
 In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-tip and reduces
the effect of stress concentration and prevents its propagation as crack.

crack propagation in case of

Initial minute brittle materials
crack
 5. Classification of cutting tools

Type of cutting tool Machine tool uses

Single point cutting tool Lathe, shaper , sloter, planer
Multi point Milling, Drilling
Cutting tool with compact rounded shape Grinding machine
Broad classification of meal cutting metal cutting
6. Single point cutting tool. Describe their significance
7. ASA and ORS tool nomenclature system
8. Types of chips formed in metal cutting

Type of chip Work material Cutting speed Feed Rake angle

Continuous Ductile High Small Large
Discontinuous Brittle Low High Small
B.U.E Ductile Medium High Small

Preference of discontinuous chips over the continuous type

• Long continuous chips can cause problems of chip disposal, difficult to handle and
dangerous to the operator it can be solved by providing chip breakers which is not at all
problem in discontinuous chips.

9. Various types of chip breakers

Or
10. Properties of tool materials with examples

HSS, Stellite, Cemented Carbides, Ceramics, Ceramets, CBN, Polycrystalline

Diamond
* 18-4-1 (W-Cr-V) , 0.6% C composition of HSS
W: Hardness & strength, Cr: Abrasive & wear resistance
V: Red hardness. Most popular cutting tool material used in machine tools ,
carbides are used in grinding wheel.
Side Cutting –Edge It is the angle which prevents interference as the tool enters the work
Angle, Cs. materials. The tip of the tool is protected at the start of the cut. It enables the
tool to contact the work first behind the tip. This angle affects tool life and
surface finish.

End Cutting Edge The ECEA provides a clearance or relief to the trailing end of the cutting
Angle, Ce. edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the machined surface and the
trailing (Non-Cutting) part of the cutting edge. Only a small angle is
sufficient for this purpose.

Side Relief Angle (SRA These angles (Denoted as θe, and θs ) are provided so that the flank of the
and End Relief Angle. tool clears the workpiece surface and there is no rubbing action between the
(ERA) two. Tools with increased values of relief penetrate and cut the workpiece
material more efficiently and this reduces the cutting forces. Too large relief
angles weaken the cutting edge and there is less mass to absorb and conduct
the heat away from the cutting edge.

Back and Side Rake Cutting angle and the angle of Shear are affected by the values for rake
Angle(αb & , αs ) angles. Larger the rake angle, smaller the cutting angle (and larger the shear
angle) and the lower the cutting force and power. However, since increasing
the rake angle decreases the cutting angle, this leaves less metal at the point
of the tool to support the cutting edge and conduct away the heat.
 Cluster 2
Reference Material
Course: Manufacturing Technology (A3)
1. Discuss the functions, properties and basis for selecting a cutting fluid? Explain different
types of cutting fluids used in machining?

Functions
 Prime functions
 Provide cooling
 Provide lubrication
Other functions
 Prolong cutting-tool life
 Provide rust control
 Resist rancidity

Properties
 Good cooling capacity
 Good lubricating qualities
 Resistance to rancidity
 Relatively low viscosity
 Stability

In the realm of machining, the choice of cutting fluid is of paramount importance, as it directly
impacts machining efficiency, tool life, surface finish, and overall productivity. Several key factors
should be considered when selecting a cutting fluid:

Material and Workpiece: Different materials (e.g., metals, plastics, composites) and workpiece
properties (e.g., hardness, thermal conductivity) require specific cutting fluids to optimize
performance and avoid damage.

Machining Operation: The type of machining process (e.g., turning, milling, drilling) and its
associated parameters (e.g., cutting speed, feed rate) determine the demands on the cutting fluid,
such as lubrication, cooling, or chip evacuation.

Tooling: The cutting tool's material and geometry influence the level of heat generated and the
potential for tool wear, affecting the choice of cutting fluid to manage these aspects.

Environmental Considerations: Factors such as toxicity, biodegradability, and regulatory

compliance are essential when selecting cutting fluids to minimize environmental impact and
adhere to safety standards.
2. Methods of cutting fluid application. Reasons for heat generation while metal cutting.
3. Specifications, principle and construction of a lathe machine.

Lathe Specifications

1. Height of centers
2. Swing over bed
3. Swing over carriage
4. Swing in gap
5. Length between centers
6. Length of the bed

Lathe principle

The job is securely and rigidly held in the chuck or

in between centers on the lathe machine and then
turn it against a single point cutting tool which will
remove metal from the job in the form of chips.

Lathe Construction

Lathe machine
4. Construction and working of open side and double housing planar.

Open side Planer Machine

 It has only one housing on one side of the base on which a cross rail on a table as shown
in the figure.
 Three tool heads can be mounted on the machine. In this machine, a single housing has to
take up the entire load, therefore it should be rigid and robust to resist the forces.

Open side planer machine

 The cross rail can slide vertically along the guide-ways of the housing and it carries to
tool heads which can be moved horizontally and vertically another tool head is fitted on
the housing and it can also be moved horizontally and vertically.

Double housing Planer Machine

 It consists of a long heavy base with accurately machined guide-ways on which a table
reciprocates.
 The bed length is slightly greater than twice the length of the table. Near the middle of
the bed, two vertical housings are mounted.

Double housing planer machine

 The horizontal cross rail carrying two tool heads slides over the vertical faces of the two
housings. These tool heads are moved by hand or power in the crosswise or vertical
direction to give the feed.
 In addition to these, there are two other tool heads mounted on the vertical face of the
housing, which can be moved in a vertical and horizontal direction to give the feed.
Mechanical or hydraulic devices may be used to drive the planer table.
5. Types of milling machines. Construction and working of a column and knee type milling
machine.

Types of milling Machines

 Vertical Milling Machine.
 Horizontal Milling Machine.
 Universal Milling Machine.
 Vertical Knee Type Milling Machine.
 Bed Type Milling Machines.
 CNC Milling Machine.
 Tracer Controlled Milling Machine.
 Column Milling Machines.

Column and knee type Milling Machine

Horizontal milling machine Vertical milling machine

Horizontal milling machine

A horizontal milling machine is a versatile machining tool that features a horizontal spindle
orientation, allowing the cutting tool to extend horizontally from the workpiece. This configuration
enables precise and efficient removal of material as the workpiece is secured on the machine's bed.
Horizontal milling machines are particularly suited for producing a wide range of flat surfaces,
slots, gears, and other intricate components due to their ability to accommodate various cutting
angles and versatile work-holding setups.

Vertical milling machine

A vertical milling machine is a versatile machining tool characterized by its vertical spindle
orientation, with the cutting tool extending downward from the workpiece. This design enables
efficient material removal as the workpiece is clamped to the machine's table. Vertical milling
machines are well-suited for tasks like drilling, tapping, and machining complex shapes, thanks to
their ability to precisely control cutting depth and feed rates. They are commonly used in industries
such as manufacturing, metalworking, and woodworking for creating a diverse range of
components and products.
6. Types of grinding machines. Construction and working of tool and cutter grinder.

Bench Grinder
These types of grinding machines are fixed on a workbench or table. Gear or pulley is fitted in it.
For rotating the big-size gears or pulley a handle is also fixed. It contains one or two grinding
wheels. Edges of cutting tools can be made with this grinder. Provision can be made to operate
these with power also.

Surface grinder:
A surface grinder features different components such as the abrasive wheel, a chuck (a workpiece
holding device), and a rotary table. The chuck holds the workpiece in place and the wheel and
object are rotated to produce a smooth finish.
Cylindrical grinder:
This type is used for shaping the outside of work pieces, making it suitable for work jobs with a
variety of shapes as long as they can rotate through a central axis. The workpiece and the grinding
wheel rotate simultaneously in cylindrical grinders.

Center-less grinder:
This is a type of cylindrical grinder that uses two rotary wheels to secure the workpiece in place.
It does not make use of a spindle-like the centered grinder. The rotation speed of the wheels is
determined by the rate of material to be removed.

Tool and Cutter grinder:

This type of grinding machine makes use of a CNC machine tool with up to 5 axes and multiple
grinding wheels. The device is used for sharpening and producing milling cutters like drills, step
tools, and end mills. It is also widely used for producing tools used in the woodworking and metal-
cutting industries.

Tool and Cutter grinder:

 A tool and cutter grinder is a machine used for shaping and sharpening a tool or cutter by
means of abrasive wheels.
 It can be operated both hydraulically and electrically.

Types of Tool and Cutter Grinder

There are the following two types of tools and cutter grinders are used.
 Universal Tool and Cutter Grinders
 Single-Purpose Tool and Cutter Grinders

Universal Tool and Cutter Grinders

 Universal tool and cutter grinder can be used for sharpening a variety of tools and milling
cutters.
 Universal tool and cutter grinders are often used for sharpening reamers, taps, single-
point tools, dies, punches and milling cutters, etc
 Single-Purpose Tool and Cutter Grinders
 Single-purpose tools and cutter grinders are used for grinding tools such as drills, tool
bits, etc. in a large production plant where the volume of production is a high and large
number of similar tools need to be grind frequently.

7. Types of drilling machine. Construction of a radial drilling machine.

Types of drilling Machines

 Sensitive Drilling Machine
 Radial Drilling Machine
 Upright Drilling Machine
 Gang Drilling Machine
 Deep-Hole Drilling Machine
 Multiple-Spindle Drilling Machine
 Portable Drilling Machine

Radial Drilling Machine

 Radial drilling machines are used to drill mediums to large and heavy work pieces. These
machines are used to drill holes in a given radial distance. It is mainly used when the
component’s size is larges in height.

 Radial drilling machines are primarily designed for drilling holes in heavy jobs or work
pieces. Since heavy work cannot move much, the radial drilling machine is made in such a
way that the machine tool can move any part of heavy work without doing much work.
 Working

 Initially, when a power supply is given, the spindle rotates, which is driven by the motor.
Since the radial arm can move up and down in the column, the radial arm is adjusted
according to the operation and height of the workpiece.

 The spindle is attached to the chuck, and the drill bit is placed in the jaw of the chuck. The
head of the drilling machine is also adjusted so that the tool is in the correct position to
make a hole in the workpiece.

 After that, a suitable feed is given, and then the drill bit easily moves into the workpiece.
The drive mechanism used in the drilling machine is the rack and pinion mechanism.

8. Construction and working of gang drilling, multi spindle drilling and deep hole drilling.

Gang drilling
 A gang drill machine is a drilling machine with multiple columns. This type of drilling
machine features multiple drill columns and heads installed on a single table.
 It is mostly used for drilling multiple holes in a workpiece at the same time. This machine
can conduct a variety of machining operations such as counter drilling, tapping, drilling,
and reaming.

Multi spindle drilling

This type of drilling machine is also considered a special-purpose tool. It has a drill head made
up of many spindles and is powered by a single motor. It is often used to drill many holes at once.
The primary goal of the multi-spindle drilling machine is to enhance production while decreasing
operation time.
Deep-hole drilling
A deep-hole drilling machine is a machine tool for cutting metal. It can drill very deep, precise
holes into almost any metal. Deep-hole drilling machines allow specific equipment to be used to
optimize the deep hole drilling process for manufacturers.
This type of drilling machine is mostly used to drill deeper holes in various elements such as
spindles, barrels, connecting rods, and some oil-well drilling equipment.

Deep-hole drilling machine

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 Cluster 3
Reference Material
Course: Manufacturing Technology (A3)
1. Concept on quick change gear box mechanism of lathe.

 Quick change gear box is shown in figure. The motion is transmitted from the spindle gear to
the shaft A through the tumbler gear and change gears.
 Shaft A has got 12 cone gears keyed to it. So shaft B can get 12 different speeds from A by
the use of sliding gear.
 Shaft B is connected to shaft C through 4 cone gears with the four additional gears, shaft C
can have 12 x 4 48 speeds.

 The driver shaft C is connected to lead screw by a clutch. In some lathes the lead screw will
be used for thread cutting and also for automatic feeds.
 In some lathes, both lead screw and feed rod are available. In these lathes, the lead screw will
be used for thread cutting only.
 Feed rod is used for automatic feeds. The figure shows a lathe having lead screw and feed
rod to receive 48 different speeds and feeds from the quick change gear box.

2. Concept of apron mechanism in a lathe.

Lead screw and feed rod is getting power from spindle gear through tumbler gears.
  Power is transmitted from feed rod to the worm wheel through gears A, B, C, D and worm. A
spline shaft is attached with worm wheel.
 The spline shaft is always engaged with the gears F and G which are keyed to the feed check
shaft.
 A knob 'E' is fitted with feed check shaft. Feed check knob 'E' can be placed in three
positions such as neutral, push-in and pull-out.
 When the feed check knob 'E' is in neutral position, power is not transmitted either to cross
feed screw or to the carriage since gears F and G have no connection with H and K.

Hand feed
 Hand feed is given as follows. When the longitudinal feed hand wheel rotates, pinion I will
also be rotated through I and H.
 Pinion I will move on rack for taking longitudinal feed.
 For getting cross feed, cross slide screw will be rotated by using cross slide hand wheel.
Push-in
 When the feed check knob 'E' is push-in, rotating gear G will be engaged to H then the power
will be transmitted to pinion I and pinion I will rotate on rack.
 So, automatic longitudinal feed takes place.
Pulled-out
 When the feed check knob 'E' is pulled-out; the rotating gear F will be engaged to K.
 Hence, the power will be transmitted to cross feed screws through L.
 This leads to automatic cross feed.

3. Taper turning by tail stock set over and compound rest methods.

Tailstock set over method.

 In this method, the axis of rotation of the work pieces is shifted to the axis of the lathe at half
an angle to the taper. The work piece is placed between the live center and the dead center.
 The tailstock is moved upright in a cross direction that is in the direction of the lathe axis by
the turning set-over method.
 The tailstock is locked in an upward or downward direction to allow the work piece to tilt,
and therefore the taper bend can be ejected.
Compound rest method.

 This method is typically used to produce short and steep cones. In this method, the
compound rest is rotated at the required angle and held in position.
 The compound rest can be rotated up to 45 degrees. The work piece is held in the chuck &
will be rotated in the lathe axis.

Form tool method

 In this method, a broad form tool with a straight cutting edge is set to the work at a half taper
angle & is fed directly into the work piece.
 The tool used in this method is called the taper turnings form tool. The tool itself is used in a
tapered shape, creating a tapered work piece.
 In this method, the length of the taper should be less than the length of the tool cutting edge.
 Since the entire edge removes the metal, it will create huge vibrations and therefore requires
a large force.
4. Construction and working of turret lathe machine.

 Turret lathe is a type of metalworking lathe that is designed for efficient and repetitive
production of parts.
 It is equipped with a turret, which holds multiple cutting tools that can be quickly
indexed into the working position. This allows the lathe operator to perform various
machining operations without the need to manually change and adjust tools.

Features:
Automatic Indexing.
High Production Rates.
Versatility.
Automatic Indexing
Multiple Tool Stations
Rapid Feeds and Speeds

5. Construction and working of capstan lathe machine.

 A capstan lathe is a type of turret lathe that is specifically designed for high-speed and
high-volume production of small to medium-sized work pieces.
 Its design and operation share similarities with a turret lathe, but it is optimized for rapid
and efficient machining of parts.

Tool Holding and Turret Assembly: A capstan lathe features a turret assembly that holds
multiple tool holders. Each tool holder contains a different cutting tool. The turret can be rotated
to position the desired tool in front of the workpiece.

Automatic Indexing: Similar to a turret lathe, a capstan lathe has an automatic indexing
mechanism that rotates the turret to the next tool position. This indexing can be achieved using
mechanical cams, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators, or CNC controls.
 Loading the Work piece: The work piece is loaded into the collet or chuck located at the spindle
end of the lathe. The collet or chuck grips the work piece securely and ensures proper concentricity.

Tool Selection and Machining: The operator selects the appropriate tools and machining
operations for the part being produced. As the lathe is set in motion, the turret rotates to bring the
selected tool into cutting position.

6. Function of the crank and slotted link mechanism in shaper.

In a shaper machine, the crank and slotted lever mechanism is a fundamental component that
converts rotary motion into reciprocating linear motion, which is used to drive the cutting tool
during the shaping process. This mechanism plays a crucial role in the operation of the shaper
machine, enabling the controlled movement of the cutting tool to shape the workpiece.

Crank and slotted lever mechanism works in a shaper:

Crank: The crank is a rotating component connected to the main drive of the shaper, often
driven by an electric motor. As the crank rotates, it generates rotary motion.
Connecting Rod: The connecting rod is linked to the crank at one end and the slotted lever at
the other. It transmits the rotary motion from the crank to the slotted lever.

Slotted Lever: The slotted lever is a rigid bar with a slot or elongated hole at one end. The
connecting rod is attached to the slotted lever through this slot. The slotted lever pivots about a
fixed point.
Ram: The ram is a vertical reciprocating component of the shaper that holds the cutting tool. It is
guided by vertical rails and can move up and down in a straight line.
Link Block: The link block is attached to the other end of the slotted lever. It moves within the
slot as the slotted lever pivots.
 Mechanism operates during the shaping process:
Forward Stroke:
 As the crank rotates, it imparts rotary motion to the connecting rod.
 The connecting rod transmits this motion to the slotted lever.
 The slotted lever pivots around its fixed point, causing the link block to move within the
slot.
 The motion of the link block is transformed into vertical motion of the ram.
 The ram, carrying the cutting tool, moves downward toward the workpiece, engaging the
cutting action.
Return Stroke:
 After completing the cutting stroke, the motion of the crank causes the connecting rod to
move in the opposite direction.
 The slotted lever pivots in the opposite direction, causing the link block to move in the
opposite direction within the slot.
 The ram moves upward, retracting the cutting tool from the workpiece.
 This reciprocating motion of the ram during the forward and return strokes enables the
cutting tool to shape the workpiece.
 The mechanism ensures controlled and precise movement, allowing for accurate
machining operations. The stroke length and cutting speed can often be adjusted to suit the
specific requirements of the workpiece.

7. Open and cross belt drive mechanism in planer machine.

Most planers carry this system of open and cross belt drive for the quick return of the tables.

 This mechanism consists of two belts, one open and one cross operating on two loose and
fast pulleys.
 The main driving shaft is provided below the bed. One end carries the pinion which
meshes with the rack provided under the table of the machine.
 Cross belt is used for forward or cutting stroke and the open belt is for return motion.

 Cross belt is connected to fast pulley and open belt is connected to loose pulley and it
enables slow movement of the table during forward stroke.
8. Construction and working of the spindle drive and feed mechanism of drilling machine.

Spindle drive

 For getting direct speed, back gear is not engaged (as in the cone pulley arrangement)
 The step cone pulley is locked with the main spindle by using the lock pin.
 The flat belt is changed for different steps in cone pulley. Thus three or four ranges of
speed can be obtained directly.
 For getting slow or indirect speeds, back gear is engaged by lever .L and lock pin is
disengaged.
 Now, power will flow from P1 to B1.
 B1 to B2 (same shaft), B2 to Gl to spindle.
 As gear B1 is larger than P1, the speed will further be reduced at B1.
 B1 and B2 will have the same speeds.
 The speed will further be reduced at G1 because gear G1 is larger than B1. So, the speed
of spindle is reduced by engaging the back gear.

Feed drive

 The feed may be controlled by hand or by automatic means. Fig illustrates the automatic
feed mechanism.
 Different ranges of feed can be obtained by means of feed gear box.
 In feed gearbox, different sizes of gears are mounted in two shafts. They are constantly in
mesh with each other.
 The gears in the driven shaft are all keyed Pinion to the shaft and rotate with it.

 The power is transmitted through any one gear in the driver shaft at a time.
  Thus by engaging the sliding key with each gear, different speeds of driven shaft is
obtained.
 Then the power is transmitted to the spindle through bevel gears, clutch, and worm
gearing as in fig.

9. Construction and working of internal center less grinding and planetary grinding.

Internal center less grinding:

This type of method consist Grinding wheel, support wheel, regulating wheel etc.. The operation
is done by placing the grinding wheel inside the work piece and rotated with the help of regulating
wheel and supporting the work piece with the help of support wheel.

Planetary internal grinder

Planetary internal grinder is used where the workpiece is of irregular shape and cannot be rotated
conveniently as shown in Fig. In this machine the workpiece does not rotate. Instead, the grinding
wheel orbits the axis of the hole in the workpiece.
10. Construction and working of external and internal center less grinders? List the advantages.

In center less grinding the grinding wheel turns the workpiece with the regulating wheel
controlling rotation speed. This provides the differential motion needed for material removal.

Advantages of Centre less grinding:

 Centre less grinding operation requires less grinding stock.
 Centre less grinding has a high rate of production.
 This process helps in high rigid support to work.
 This operation is easy to control.
 This operation is done with quality output.
 This type of work can be done by less skilled persons.
 This Centre less grinding process occurs an exact floating condition.

11. Standard marking system of grinding wheel? What do you understand from grain, grit,
structure, bond and grade of a grinding wheel?
Grain: The term "grain" refers to the individual abrasive particles that are embedded within the grinding
wheel. These abrasive particles are responsible for cutting and removing material from the workpiece being
ground. Common abrasive materials used as grains include aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, cubic boron
nitride (CBN), and diamond. The choice of abrasive grain depends on the material being ground and the
desired finish.
Grit: Grit refers to the size of the abrasive particles or grains within the grinding wheel. It is measured
using a standard grading system. The grit size determines how fine or coarse the grinding process will be.
Smaller grit sizes result in a finer finish, while larger grit sizes remove material more aggressively but leave
a rougher surface. Grit sizes are denoted by numbers, where a higher number indicates a finer grit.
Structure: The structure of a grinding wheel refers to the density or spacing between the abrasive grains.
It determines the porosity of the wheel and how well it can handle coolant and chip removal during grinding.
A more open structure allows for better coolant flow and chip clearance, making it suitable for softer
materials and preventing the wheel from clogging. A denser structure is better for more aggressive grinding
on harder materials.
Bond: The bond in a grinding wheel is the material that holds the abrasive grains together and provides
structural integrity to the wheel. The bond also determines how effectively the abrasive grains are released
as they wear, revealing new sharp edges. Different types of bonds include vitrified (ceramic), resin, rubber,
and metal. The choice of bond depends on the application and the properties of the material being ground.
Grade: The grade of a grinding wheel indicates the strength of the bond and the wheel's ability to retain
the shape of the abrasive grains under the forces of grinding. It's usually represented by letters such as A,
B, C, and so on, where A represents a softer grade and Z represents a harder grade. Softer grades are used
for materials that are more ductile, while harder grades are used for more brittle materials.