Material Removal Processes

Cutting Tool Technology

 Cutting Tool Technology
 Tool Wear and failure
 Tool Materials
 Tool Geometry
 Cutting Fluids

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 Tool Wear and failure
 Cutting tools are subjected to high forces, temperature and
sliding; all these conditions induce wear.
 As a result of that, cutting tool wearing effects on the quality
of machined surface and economics of machining
operation.

An additional factors are involved in tool wear:

 Cutting tool and workpiece material (their physical,
mechanical and chemical properties).
 Cutting geometry
 Cutting fluids if used
 Processing parameters ( cutting speed, feed, and depth of
cut).
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 Tool Wear

 There are three possible modes by which a cutting

tool can fail in machining
 Fracture failure: when excessive cutting force
leading to brittle fracture .
 Temperature failure: when cutting temperature is too
high.
 Gradual wears: loss of tool shape and cutting
efficiency. Resulting in Gradual wearing of the cutting
tool

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 Preferred Mode?
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to the longest
possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)

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 Types of tool wear
 Flank wears: from
rubbing between newly
work surface and the
Flank (land )face.
 Crater wears: concave
section, by the action of
the chip sliding against
the surface.
 Chipping of the cutting
edge(catastrophic)
 Nose wear

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 Types of tool wear

 Crater wear (crater)

 tool-chip interface
 predominant at high speeds
 Flank wear (wear land)
 tool-workpiece interface
 predominant at low speeds
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 Chipping
 Chipping is used to describe the breaking away of a
piece from the cutting edge of the tool.
 The chipped pieces may be very small (microchipping or
macrochipping), or they may involve relatively large
fragments.

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 Causes of chipping
Main cause of chipping
 Mechanical shock
chipping by mechanical shock may occur in a region in the cutting tool where
a small crack or defects already exists.
 Thermal fatigue
are typically caused by thermal cycling of the cutting tool resulting in
thermal cracks, which are generally perpendicular to cutting edge.

Rare cause of chipping

 High rank angles
can also contribute to chipping, because of the small included angle of the
tool tip (a phenomenon similar to chipping of a very sharp pencil).
 Crater wear
may also contribute to chipping, because it progresses toward the tool tip and
weaken it, causing chipping
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 Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
 Discontinuous chip
 Continuous chip
 Continuous chip with
Built-up Edge (BUE)
 Serrated chip

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 Discontinuous Chip & Continuous Chip
Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials e.g. cast
irons or materials that contain
hard impurities
 Very low or very high cutting
speeds
 Large feed and depth of cut
Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials e.g.
copper
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge

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 Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes portions
of chip to adhere(stick to) to
rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
 Can be reduced by
 Decreasing the depth of cut
 Using a sharp tool
 Increasing cutting speed

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 Serrated Chip
 Also called segmented or non-
homogeneous chips
 Semicontinuous, saw-tooth
appearance
 Associated with difficult-to-
machine metals at high cutting
speeds; metals with low thermal
conductivity & strength that
decreases sharply with temperature
e.g. titanium alloys
 Some steels may also exhibit this
phenomenon when cut at high
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 Cutting Tool Materials

 The proper selection of cutting-tool materials is among

the most important considerations in machining
operation.

 In machining operation, the tool is subjected to:

 High temperatures
 High contact stresses
 Rubbing on the workpiece surface
 And the effects of chip climbing up the rake face of the tool

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 Cutting Tool Materials
A cutting tool must posses the following characteristics:
Hardness
particular at elevated temperatures (hot hardness), so that the
hardness and strength of cutting tool material are maintained at the
temperature encountered in machining operation.
Toughness
so that impact forces on the cutting tool in interrupted cutting
operations such as milling or turning, do not chip or fracture the tool.
Wear resistance
so that an acceptable tool life is obtained before the tool is replaced
[hardness is the most important property to resist abrasive wear]
Chemical stability
so that any adverse reactions that may contribute to tool wear are
avoided or minimized
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 Cutting Tool Materials
Tool materials are usually divided into the following
categories in which they were developed and
implemented:
Carbon and medium – alloy steels
High-speed steels
Carbides
Coated tools
Alumina-based ceramics
Cubic boron nitride
Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
diamond
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 Tool Geometry
 Two categories
 Single point tools
 Multiple cutting edge tools

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 Tool Geometry

Three ways of holding and presenting the cutting edge for a single‑point
tool: (a) solid tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed insert, one way of holding a
cemented carbide insert; and (c) mechanically clamped insert, used for
cemented carbides, ceramics, and other very hard tool materials

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 Tool Geometry Solid Tool
 High speed steel (HSS) and carbon
steel cutting tools can be shaped in
one piece and grounded to various
geometries.
 However, after the cutting-edge
wears and becomes dull, the tool
has to be removed from its holder
and reground, which is a time
consuming process.
 The need for a more efficient method
led to the development of inserts.

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 Tool Geometry of Insert
 Inserts are individual cutting tools
with a number of cutting edges
and in various shapes. Thus, a
square insert has eight cutting
edges, and a triangular has six
cutting edges.
 Inserts are available with a wide
variety of chip-breaker features
for controlling chip flow and
reducing vibration and heat
generated

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 Tool Geometry of Insert
 Brazed Insert: is less frequently
used, because of the difference in
thermal expansion between the
insert and tool-shank materials.
 Mechanically Clamped Insert:
is the preferred methods because
after one cutting edge is
damaged, it is indexed (rotate in
it is holder) so that another edge
can be used
 Mechanically Wing lock pins
Insert:

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 Tool Geometry of Inserts

The strength of the cutting edge of an insert depends on

its shape; the smaller the included angle of the edge, the
lower is its strength
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 Concept of Rake & Clearance angles
 Rake angle (α): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane
 Clearance angle (γ): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface
from the finished surface

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 Cutting Fluids
 Also called lubricants and coolants.
 Cutting fluids are used extensively in machining operation to
improve cutting performance via :
 Cooling the cutting zone, thus reducing workoiece temperature
and distortion [Heat generation at shear and friction zones].
 Easier handling of work part
 Reducing friction and wear, hence improving tool life and
surface finish [Friction at tool‑chip and tool‑work interfaces].
 Reducing forces and energy consumption.
 Wash a way chips.
 Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental
attack.

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 Cutting Fluid Functions
 Cutting fluids can be classified according to function
 Coolants (Water)
 Designed to reduce effects of heat in machining
 Most effective at high cutting speeds where heat generation
and high temperatures are problems
 Lubricants (Usually oil‑based fluids)
 Designed to reduce tool‑chip and tool‑work friction
 Most effective at lower cutting speeds, Also reduce
temperature in the operation

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 Cutting Fluids Deficiencies
 There are situations in which the use of cutting fluids can
be detrimental
 In an interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, the
cooling action of the cutting fluid increases the extent of
alternate heating and cooling ( thermal cycling) to which
the cutter teeth are subjected. This condition can lead to
thermal cracks (thermal fatigue)
 Cutting fluids may also cause the chip to become more
curled, thus concentrating the stresses on the tool
closer to the tool tip and reducing tool life.

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