PRODUCTION

TECHNOLOGY - II
METAL CUTTING
 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Broad classification of Engineering Manufacturing Processes.
• It is extremely difficult to tell the exact number of various
manufacturing processes existing and are being practiced
presently because very large number of processes have
been developed till now and the number is still increasing
exponentially with the growing demands and rapid progress
in science and technology.
• However, all such manufacturing processes can be broadly
classified in four major groups as:
Joining process
Welding, brazing, soldering etc.

Removal or Cutting process

Machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.

Shaping or forming process

Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a
given material taken in possible states:
• in solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
• in powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.

Casting process
In liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
Regenerative Manufacturing Process
• Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw
materials in different form:
• liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• powder – e.g., selective sintering
• sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modeling)
Out of the four groups, Regenerative Manufacturing is the latest
one which is generally accomplished very rapidly and quite
accurately using CAD and CAM for Rapid Prototyping and
Tooling.
 Material Removal Processes – Metal Cutting Processes
• A family of shaping operations, the common feature of which is removal of
material from a starting work part so the remaining part has the desired
geometry

• Traditional Process (Machining) – Material removal by a sharp cutting tool,

e.g., turning, milling, drilling, shaping, slotting

• Nontraditional processes - Various energy forms other than sharp cutting

tool to remove material. e.g., Laser and Electron Beam machining, EDM,
USM, AJM, WJM

• Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard, abrasive particles, e.g.,

grinding
 MACHINING OR METAL CUTTING
 Removing unwanted material

 Cutting / chipping / machining / metal cutting

To get desired
 Shape
 Size
 Surface finish
Typical Machining Example
Changing shape/size/finish

(a) Raw Material (b) Finished Product

Unwanted material
to be removed
Mechanism of Metal Cutting
Tool & Workpiece interaction
Metal Cutting: features

 Closer dimensional accuracy

 Surface texture/finish
 Economical
 Complex shape
 Size
 Metal Cutting: features
× Material loss (~50%)
× Scarcity /  inadequate supply of materials
× Special equipment
× Skilled operators
× Time required
× All materials cannot be machined
Essentials of Metal Cutting Operation

• Machine Tool
• Cutting Tool
• Method
• Operator
 MACHINE TOOLS
A machine tool is a non-portable power operated
and reasonably valued device or system of devices
in which energy is expended to produce jobs of
desired size, shape and surface finish by removing
excess material from the preformed blanks in the
form of chips with the help of cutting tools moved
past the work surface(s).
 Basic Functions of Machine Tools
Machine tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat,
cylindrical or any contour on the preformed blanks by
machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:
 Firmly holding the blank and the tool.
 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank.
 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining
action.
 Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and
depth of cut.
 Classification of Machine Tools

Number of types of machine tools

gradually increased till mid 20th century
and after that started decreasing based on
group technology
1. According to direction of major axis
 Horizontal - centre lathe, horizontal boring
machine etc.

 Vertical - vertical lathe, vertical axis milling

machine etc.

 Inclined - special (e.g. for transfer machines).

2. According to purpose of use
 General purpose - e.g. centre lathes,
milling machines, drilling machines etc.

 Single purpose - e.g. facing lathe, roll

turning lathe etc.

 Special purpose - for mass production.

3. According to degree of automation
 Non-automatic - e.g. centre lathes, drilling
machines etc.

 Semi-automatic - capstan lathe, turret lathe,

hobbing machine etc.

 Automatic - e.g., single spindle automatic

lathe, swiss type automatic lathe, CNC
milling machine etc.
 4. According to size
 Heavy - e.g., heavy duty lathes (e.g. ≥ 55 kW),
boring mills, planning machine, horizontal
boring machine etc.
 Medium - e.g., lathes - 3.7 ~ 11 kW, column
drilling machines, milling machines etc.
 Small - e.g., table top lathes, drilling machines,
milling machines.
 Micro - e.g., micro-drilling machine etc.
 5. According to blank type

 Bar type (lathes).

 Chucking type (lathes).

 Housing type (Odd shape jobs, being

held in face plate) 
6. According to precision
 Ordinary - e.g., automatic lathes.

 High precision - e.g., Swiss type

automatic lathes.
7. According to number of spindles
 Single spindle - centre lathes, capstan
lathes, milling machines etc.

 Multi spindle - multi spindle (2 to 8)

lathes, gang drilling machines etc.
8. According to type of automation

 Fixed automation - e.g., single spindle and

multi spindle lathes.

 Flexible automation - e.g., CNC milling

machine
 9. According to configuration
 Stand alone type - most of the conventional
machine tools.

 Machining system (more versatile) - e.g.,

transfer machine, machining centre, FMS etc.
MACHINE TOOL
 Lathe
 Milling
 Shaper
 Slotter
 Drilling
 METAL CUTTING
Metal cutting or Machining operation is to produce a desired shape,
size and finish of a component by removing excess material in the
form of chips.
So, primary objective of metal cutting is to produce chips which are
thrown away.
Chips may constitute more than 50% of initial work piece.
Machining processes are performed on metal cutting machines, more
commonly termed as machine tools using various types of cutting
tools.
Metal cutting process in general should be carried out at high speeds
and feeds with least cutting effort at minimum cost.
Factors Affecting Metal Cutting
1. Properties of Work material
2. Properties & geometry of cutting tool
3. Interaction between tool and work
 MECHANICS OF METAL CUTTING
A cutting tool exerts compressive force on the workpiece which
stresses the work material beyond the yield point and therefore metal
deform plastically and shears off.

Plastic flow takes place in a localized region called the shear plane.

Sheared material begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form
of chips.

Flowing chips cause tool wear.

Applied compressive force which leads to formation of chips is called

cutting force.
• Heat produced during shearing action raises the temperature of
the workpiece, cutting tool and chips.

• Temperature rise in cutting tool softens and causes loss of

keenness in cutting edge.

• Cutting force, heat and abrasive wear are important features in

metal cutting.
(a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process,
(b) tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
TYPES OF RAKE ANGLE
 Basic Machining Parameters
Speed (V) [m/min]
• Relates velocity of the cutting tool to the work piece
(Primary motion).

Feed (f) [mm/rev]

• Movement (advancement) of the tool per revolution
of the workpiece

Depth of Cut (d) [mm]

• Distance the tool has plunged into the surface
 MECHANICS OF CHIP FORMATION
The cutting itself is a process of
extensive plastic deformation to
form a chip that is removed
afterward. The basic mechanism
of chip formation is essentially
the same for all machining
operations. Assuming that the
cutting action is continuous, we
can develop so-called
continuous model of cutting
process.
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather than
shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting from
tool‑chip friction.
 FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CHIP IN MACHINING

1. Discontinuous chip

2. Continuous chip

3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)

4. Segmented chip
DISCONTINUOUS CHIP
• Brittle work materials
• Low cutting speeds
• Large feed and depth of cut
• Small rake angle
• High tool‑chip friction
 CONTINUOUS CHIP
• Ductile work materials

• High cutting speeds

• Small feeds and depths

• Large rake angle

• Sharp cutting edge

• Low tool‑chip friction

CONTINUOUS WITH BUE
• Ductile materials
• Low‑to‑medium cutting speeds
• Large feed
• Small rake angle
• Tool-chip friction causes portions
of chip to adhere to rake face
• BUE forms, then breaks off,
cyclically
 SEGMENTED CHIP
• Semi continuous – saw - tooth
appearance

• Cyclical chip forms with alternating

high shear strain then low shear strain

• Associated with difficult-to-machine

metals at high cutting speeds
CUTTING TOOLS
 Requirements
 Common materials
 Alloying
 Types
 Tool geometry
 TYPES OF CUTTING TOOLS
Cutting tools may be classified according to the
number of major cutting edges (points) involved as
follows:
 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping,
planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
 Multipoint (two or more): e.g., drills. milling
cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping
cutters etc.
CUTTING TOOLS

a. Single-Point Cutting Tool b. Multi-Point Cutting Tool

 Single point

Multiple point
 TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL
Single point cutting tool
The cutting tool, which has only one cutting edge, is known as single point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tools are generally used while performing turning, boring, shaping
and planning operation. The important elements in single point cutting tools are rake
angle, principle cutting edge, nose etc. 
Types of single point tools are as:
(a) Solid type tool bit
(b) Brazed tip tool
(c) Long indexable insert tool
(d) Throwaway indexable insert tool

Multi point cutting tool
A cutting tool which has more than one cutting edge is multi point  cutting  tool.  Multi-
point  cutting  tools  are  generally  used  while  performing 
drilling, milling, broaching, grinding etc. Important elements are cutting edge, 
 Geometry of Single Point Tool
Right hand tool Left hand tool
 SINGLE-POINT CUTTING TOOL
As distinguished from other cutting tools such as a the cutting edge is ground to
suit a particular machining operation and may be re sharpened or reshaped as
needed. The ground tool bit is held rigidly by a tool holder while it is cutting.
 
Back Rake is to help control the direction of the chip, which naturally curves into the
work due to the difference in length from the outer and inner parts of the cut. It also
helps counteract the pressure against the tool from the work by pulling the tool into
the work.
 
Side Rake along with back rake controls the chip flow and partly counteracts the
resistance of the work to the movement of the cutter and can be optimized to suit
the particular material being cut. Brass for example requires a back and side rake
of 0 degrees while aluminum uses a back rake of 35 degrees and a side rake of 15
degrees. Nose Radius makes the finish of the cut smoother as it can overlap the
previous cut and eliminate the peaks and valleys that a pointed tool produces.
Having a radius also strengthens the tip, a sharp point being quite fragile.
Tool signature for single point cutting tool
 End cutting edge angle
Tool Geometry
Top View

Nose Radius
Side cutting edge angle

Back Rake angle

Side Rake angle

Side View Front View

Side Relief angle End Relief angle

Tool Geometry
 SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL
Shank It is the main body of the tool
Flank The surface of the tool adjacent to the cutting
edge
Face The surface on which the chip slides
Nose It is the point where the side cutting edge and end
cutting edge intersect
Nose Strengthens finishing point of tool
Radius
Cutting It is the edge on the face of the tool which
Edge removes the material from the work piece
Side cutting Angle between side cutting edge and the side of
 Tool signature for single point cutting tool
Back Rake Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
angle measured in a plane perpendicular to the side cutting edge
Side Rake Angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool and
angle measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge
End Relief Angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the end
angle cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the end flank
Side Relief Angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
angle cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, measured at
right angle to the side flank
End cutting Angle between end cutting edge and the line normal to the tool shank
edge angle
Side cutting Angle between side cutting edge and the line perpendicular to the tool
edge angle shank
Nose Radius Strengthens finishing point of tool
PROPERTIES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
 Harder than work piece.
 High toughness
 High thermal shock resistance
 Low adhesion to work piece material
 Low diffusivity to work piece material
TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
 Carbon steel
 High speed steel (HSS)
 Cemented Carbides
 Cast alloys
 Ceramics
 Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
 Diamond
HIGH CARBON STEEL
 Oldest of tool materials
 Used for drills, taps, broaches, reamers
 Inexpensive, easily shaped, sharpened
 No sufficient hardness and wear resistance
 Limited to low cutting speed operation
HIGH SPEED STEEL
 Retains its hardness at high temperature
 Red hardness.
 Relatively good wear resistance
 Cutting speed of HSS tool is 30 m/min
Type W Cr V Mo C Fe
HT 18 4 1 - 0.7 Balance
HM 1.5 4 1 8.5 0.8 Balance
TM 6 4 1 5 0.8 Balance
Tungsten (T-series)
Molybdenum (M-series)
TUNGSTEN CARBIDE
 Composite material consisting of tungsten-carbide particles
bonded together
 Alternate name is cemented carbides
 Manufactured with powder metallurgy techniques
 Small particles are pressed sintered to desired shape
 Amount of cobalt present affects properties of carbide tools
 As cobalt content increases the tougher the tool
 CAST ALLOYS
 Commonly known as stellite tools
 Composition ranges 38 - 53 cobalt
30 - 33 chromium
10 - 20 tungsten
 Good wear resistance (higher hardness)
 Less tough than high-speed steels and sensitive to impact forces
 Less suitable than high-speed steels for interrupted cutting
operations
 Continuous roughing cuts relatively high feeds - speeds
 Finishing cuts are at lower feed and depth of cut
 CERAMICS
 Used as grinding wheels.
 As cutting tool inserts, These are used in a similar way to cemented
carbide inserts.
 They can withstand extremely high machining temperatures.
 They also have a high resistance to abrasion.
 Ceramic cutting tools can be used to machine difficult materials at
really high cutting speeds sometimes over 2000 m/min. Compare this
with the cutting speed for carbon steel cutting tools 30 m/min.
 Ceramic cutting tools are very brittle.
 They can be used only on machines which are extremely rigid and
free of vibration.
 CUBIC BORON NITRIDE ( CBN )

 Made by bonding ( 0.5 - 1.0 mm or 0.02 - 0.04 in)

 Layer of poly crystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide
substrate by sintering under pressure
 While carbide provides shock resistance CBN layer provides
high resistance and cutting edge strength
 Cubic boron nitride tools are made in small sizes without
substrate
DIAMOND
 Hardest known substance
 Low friction, high wear resistance
 Ability to maintain sharp cutting edge
 Single crystal diamond of various carats used for special
applications
 Machining copper front precision optical mirrors for ( SDI)
 Diamond is brittle , tool shape sharpened is important
 Low rake angle used for string cutting edge