MEC 189.

2 Thermal Science

Chapter 1. Concept and Definitions

Ram Ale
Ritz College of Engineering and
Management(PU)
Department of Civil Engineering
 Introduction
 Thermal science is the combined study of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, heat transfer and combustion.
 Thermodynamics: The study of energy, energy transformations and its relation
to matter.
 Conservation of mass
 Conservation of energy
 Second law of thermodynamics and properties.
 Heat Transfer: the study of energy in transit including the relationship between
energy, matter, space and time.
 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
 Fluid Mechanics: The study of fluids at rest or in motion. Includes fluid statics
,Conservation of momentum , Mechanical energy equation ,Modeling etc.
 Introduction to Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics( therme=heat and dynamics= process) is
that branch of engineering science that deals with the
interaction between energy and material.
 It is concerned about the relation between HEAT, WORK
and properties of system.
 It deals with the process involving heat, work and internal
energy.
 The fundamental law is the conservation of energy principle:
energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can only be
transformed from one form to another.
 Applications of Thermodynamics
All activities in nature involve some interaction between energy and
matter; thus, it is hard to imagine an area that does not relate to
thermodynamics in some manner. Thermodynamics is one of the key
branches of physics and it has many real life applications. Some of
the applications are :
 Refrigerators
Automobile Engines
Turbojet Engines
Biomedical Applications
Vapour Power Plants
Applications of Thermodynamics
 Basic Concept of System

Universe = System+Surroundings

System: The quantity of matter or region in a space chosen for study is

called system
Boundary : The real of imaginary surfaces that separates the system from
surrounding is called boundary. It can be fixed or deformable.
Surroundings: Everything external to the system is called surroundings.
Universe: System and surrounding form the universe, i.e. Universe =
System+Surroundings. If the thermodynamic system is universe, there
is no surroundings. Such a system cannot undergo any interactions.
 Types of System
Closed System( Control mass): A system of fixed
quantity of mass that can experience only energy
transfer is called closed system ( also known as
control mass). In this type of system, no mass can
cross the boundary and the mass always remains
fixed. E.g. a tightly capped cup of coffee
Open System ( Control Volume): A region of space
that can experience both energy and mass transfer
across the boundary ( or control surface) is called an
open system. The surface enclosing the control
volume is referred to as the control surface. Most of
the engineering devices are open system. E.g.
compressors, turbines, Nozzles, an open cup of
coffee
Isolated system: It is the special case of closed
system in which neither energy nor mass can cross
the boundary. E.g. coffee in a closed, well-insulated
thermos bottle ( approximately)
 Macroscopic and microscopic Approaches
Microscopic Approach
1. In microscopic(small) approach
,analysis is done on molecular level.
2. By adding up the behavior of each
molecule analysis can be done. This
kind of approach is used in statistical
thermodynamics.
3. Advanced statistical and
mathematical methods are needed to
explain the changes in the system.
4. The value of the properties of
individual molecules.
5. Large numbers of variables are
needed to describe a system. So the
approach is complicated.
Macroscopic Approach
1.In macroscopic (big) approach,
a quantity of matter is taken into
account for analysis. .
2. It does not consider matter at
molecular level. This kind of approach
is taken in classical thermodynamics.
3. The analysis of macroscopic system
requires simple mathematical formula.
4. The value of the properties of the
system are their average values. E.g. the
pressure of the gas in closed container.
5. In order to describe a system only a
few properties are needed.
 Properties of System
State: A condition at specified time
that is fully identified by a set of
properties such as volume, pressure,
temperature, density etc is called state
of the system. At a given state, all the
properties of a system have fixed
values. If the value of even one
property changes, the state will change
to a different one.
Properties: Any observable or
measurable quantities which identify
the state of a system are called
properties. Properties of the system may
be intensive or extensive.
 Types of Properties
Intensive Properties: Those properties which are independent of mass(size) of
the system are called intensive properties. The value of the intensive property for
the entire system is not equal to the sum of their values for the individual parts of
the system , i.e. they are not additive . Here, XA+B≠ XA+XB
Extensive Properties: Those properties which are dependent of mass(size) of the
system are called extensive properties. The value of the extensive property for
the entire system is equal to the sum of their values for the individual parts of the
system , i.e. they are additive . Here, XA+B= XA+XB.
Specific Properties: Extensive property expressed per unit mass of the system is
called an specific property which is an intensive property. E.g. specific volume
(v= V/m), Specific total energy (e=E/m), Specific Internal energy ( u=U/m)
 Process, Path and Cycle
Process: Any change that a system
undergoes from one equilibrium state to
another equilibrium state is called
thermodynamic process.
Path of a system: The series of state
though which a system passes is known as
path of a system. The path is represented by
line in diagram which can be straight,
curved.
Cycle: If the initial and end state are
identical in series of process, then it is
called thermodynamic cycle. As the system
is restored after a cycle, the change in value
of any property of the system for a
cycle/cyclic process is zero. ∫ dp= 0 i.e.
Change in any property (Px,Py) = 0 or P
final (x,y)- Pinitial (x,y) = 0 .
 Thermodynamic Equilibrium

Equilibrium of a system: The word equilibrium implies a state of balance. In

an equilibrium state there are no unbalanced potentials (or driving forces)
within the system. A system in equilibrium experiences no changes when it is
isolated from its surroundings. So, a system is said to be in equilibrium if its
macroscopic quantities do not change with time.
A system is not in thermodynamic equilibrium unless the conditions of all the
relevant types of equilibrium are satisfied.
Thermal Equilibrium: Characterized by equal temperature, due to which
there is no heat transfer.
Mechanical Equilibrium: A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is
no unbalanced forces in any direction.
Chemical Equilibrium: A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical
composition does not change with time, i.e.no chemical reactions occur.
 Quasi-equilibrium Process.
A process during which the system only deviates from equilibrium by
an infinitesimal amount at every instant is called Quasi-equilibrium/Quasi-static
Process/ reversible process and each state in the process may be considered as an
equilibrium state.. A quasi-equilibrium process is a sufficiently slow process
which allows the system to adjust itself internally so that all properties in one part
of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts. Many actual
processes closely approach a quasi-static process.

Example : A piston and cylinder

device in which the contents are
compressed very slowly. As the
piston compresses the gas inside the
cylinder, the pressure inside the gas
remains very nearly uniform at all
times during the process. So,
the system never deviates
significantly from mechanical
equilibrium. So, it is quasi-
equilibrium process.
 Reversible and Irreversible Process
Cyclic process:- Process in which system comes back to its initial state after
undergoing series of changes is cyclic process.
Reversible Process: A process which can be reversed in direction and the system
retraces the same equilibrium states is known as reversible process. The reversible
process is an idealization, and all the actual processes are normally irreversible
process. E.g. Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression, Friction less
isothermal expansion or compression , Condensation or boiling of liquid , etc.
Irreversible Process: An irreversible process is a process that cannot return both
the system and the surroundings to their original conditions. That is, the system
and the surroundings would not return to their original conditions if the process
was reversed. For example, an automobile engine does not give back the fuel it
took to drive up a hill as it coasts back down the hill. There are many factors that
make a process irreversible. Four of the most common causes of irreversibility are
friction, unrestrained expansion of a fluid, heat transfer through a finite
temperature difference, and mixing of two different substances. These factors are
present in real,irreversible processes and prevent these processes from being
reversible.
 Types and Factors For Irreversibility
Types of irreversibility:
Mechanical and thermal irreversibility:
If the irreversibility is due to a finite pressure gradient, it is called mechanical
irreversibility. E.g. Free expansion of gas in a system.
It the irreversibility is due to a finite temperature gradient, it is called as thermal
irreversibility. E.g. melting of ice cube under the sunlight
Internal and External irreversibility:
If the degradation of energy occurs within the system or due to system effort,it
is called internal irreversibility.
If degradation of the energy occurs due to from outside source from the
system ,it is called is called external irreversibility.
Factors of irreversibility
Friction
Unrestricted Expansion
Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference
Mixing of two different fluids
 Specific Volume and Pressure
Specific Volume: Specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume per
unit mass and is given by symbol v.
Here, v= V/m= 1/ ρ
Unit: m3/kg
Significance : Specific volume is most often used in engineering and in
thermodynamics calculations involving gases.

Pressure : It is the normal force exerted per unit area on a real or imaginary
surface within the system.
Here, P=F/A
Units: 1 Pa= 1 N/m2
1 bar = 105 Pa and
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 760 mm of Hg
 Different Pressures

Pabs= Patm+ Pgauge where, Pgauge= +ve or -ve

Vacuum Pressure: Pressure below atmospheric pressure is vacuum pressure and

pressure at absence of matter is absolute or complete vacuum pressure. It measured
using Manometer.
Gauge Pressure: Pressure measured with measuring instruments is called guage
pressure. It is referenced against atmospheric pressure and measured using Bourden
Pressure Gauge or manometer. Pressure above atmospheric pressure is +ve gauge
pressure and pressure below atmospheric pressure –ve pressure or vacuum pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure: Pressure in the surrounding atmosphere. It measured using
barometer.
•Absolute Pressure: It is pressure measured from absolute vacuum.
 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Equality of Temperature
Temperature is a thermal state of a body which distinguishes a hot body from a
cold body. The temperature of a body is proportional to the stored molecular
energy.
Two systems are equal in temperature if no change in any property occurs when
they are brought into contact, then it is called as equality of temperature.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium(TE) with the third body then will also be
in thermal equilibrium with each other. This law defines the temperature.
If A is in TE with C and B is in TE with C then A and B are also in TE. This law
defines temperature.
 Assignments
1) Write short note on value of energy to the society.
2) Describe the about the applications of thermodynamics.
3) Describe about the types of system with suitable figures and examples.
4) Define classical and statistical thermodynamics and point out their
applications.
5) Define property of the system and mention its types.
6) Mention about the required conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium.
7) Discuss about quasi-static equilibrium.
8) State and explain zeroth law of thermodynamics.
9) What are the types of irreversibility and factors for irreversibility. Explain
with examples.