MEDICINAL STUDY OF ZINGIBERACEAE

PLANTS
Seminar By
PRAVINKUMAR B. NAGORE
Roll Number: RS20170901

Under the Guidance of

Dr. P.B.LOKHANDE

Department of Chemistry
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere
Lonere-402103
Content:
 Introduction
 Medicinal Importance of genus Curcuma
 Medicinal Importance of genus Kaempferia
 Medicinal Importance of genus Hedychium
 Medicinal Importance of genus Amomum
 Medicinal Importance of genus Zingiber
 Medicinal Importance of genus Alpinia
 Medicinal Importance of genus Elettaria
INTRODUCTION:
Medicinal plants have been used for centuries as remedies for human diseases. Treatments with
the use of various plants have historically formed the basis of sophisticated traditional
medicine, preceding the established scientific literature by thousands of years. With the
advancement of science, the source of the medicinal properties associated with these treatments
has been investigated. This quest for understanding has led to an explosion in the last hundred
years in the areas of isolation, biological activity, structural elucidation and the chemical
synthesis of natural products[1].

Natural products represent a significant source of drug compounds that are currently on the
market for the treatment of a variety of diseases and some of them are used as dietary
supplements, as dyes, flavouring agents or ingredients in the cosmetics industry for meeting
demand for effective and safer use.
Natural products from plants find applications in several therapeutic formulations. These
compounds belong to different chemical classes (alkaloids, phenolics, terpenoids etc.) and have
chemically diverse and complex structure. One area of natural product is the study of terpenes,
also referred to as terpenoids or isoprenoids. Terpenoids are one of the largest groups of natural
compounds identified from diverse sources including plants, microbial sources and marine
sponges.
They play an important role in nature, but have also served as a source of naturally occurring
medicinal compounds, which in turn provide the basis for the synthesis of biologically active
molecules. The terpenoids may be divided into subgroups based on the number of isoprenoid units
with molecular formula -(C5H8)n. This vast group of naturally occurring substances, contains an
immense range of structural diversity monocyclic, bicyclic, tricyclic and tetracyclic compounds.
One of these subgroups, the sesquiterpenes or sesquiterpenoids, possess 15 carbons, derived from
the assembly of three isoprenoid units. As with all the other terpene groups,many sesquiterpenes
possess biological activities - antimicrobial, antitumour and cytotoxic. The guaianolides represent
one of the largest groups of sesquiterpene lactones with over 200 known naturally occurring
compound[2,3].

Zingiberaceae family is an important natural resource that provides many useful products for food,
spices, medicines, dyes, perfume and aesthetics[4]. It constitutes a vital group of rhizomatous
medicinal and aromatic plants characterised by the presence of volatile oils and oleoresins of
export value and widely distributed in India and in tropical and subtropical regions of Asia.
Zingiberaceae, having 50 genera worldwide and 22 genera and about 170 species found in India .
The North East region of India is a zone of greatest concentration where 19 genera and about 88
species are reported[5,6].
Systematic Position of Zingiberaceae Family:
The systematic position of Zingiberaceae family is as follows:

Kingdom Plantae – Plants

Subkingdom: Tracheobionta – Vascular plants

Superdivision : Spermatophyta – Seed plants

Division : Magnoliophyta – Flowering plants

Class : Liliopsida – Monocotyledons

Subclass: Zingiberidae
Order : Zingiberales

Family: Zingiberaceae – Ginger family

Out of the 50 reported genera following genera constitute potential
medicinal and aromatic plants.

Genus Species
Curcuma C. longa, C. amada, C. zedoaria, C. aromatica
Kaempferia K. galangal, K. rotunda
Hedychium H. spicatum, H.coronarium
Amomum A. subulatum
Zingiber Z. officinale, Z. zerumbet
Alpinia A. galanga
Elettaria E. cardamomum
Medicinal importance of Genus Curcuma :

This genus is important in this family because of its extensive uses. It

consists of following important species.

I) Curcuma longa: Curcuma longa, or turmeric is a perennial

herb and member of the Zingiberaceae (ginger) family and is
cultivated extensively in Asia mostly in India and China. The
rhizome, the portion of the plant used medicinally, yields a yellow
powder. Dried Curcuma longa is the source of turmeric, the
ingredient that gives curry powder its characteristic yellow color.
It has many names such as Curcum in Arab region, Indian saffron,
Haridra( Sanskrut, Ayurveda), Jianghuang( Yellow ginger in
Chinese), Kyoo or Ukon(Japanese).
 Whole plant Rhizome Turmeric powder
Turmeric is comprised of a group of three curcuminoids: curcumin
(diferuloylmethane),demethoxycurcumin, and bisdemethoxycurcumin
as well as volatile oils (tumerone, atlantone and zingiberone), sugars,
proteins, and resins. The Curcumin is a lipophilic polyphenol that is
nearly insoluble in water but is quite stable in the acidic pH of the
stomach.
1.Anti-inflammatory properties:Oral administration of curcumin in instances of acute inflammation was
found to be as effective as cortisone or phenylbutazone. Oral administration of Curcuma longa significantly
reduced inflammatory swelling [7].

2 . Anti-oxidant properties: Oxidative damage is believed to be one of the mechanisms behind aging and
many diseases. It involves free radicals, highly reactive molecules with unpaired electrons. Free radicals tend
to react with important organic substances, such as fatty acids, proteins or DNA. The main reason antioxidants
are so beneficial is that they protect our body from free radicals. Curcumin is a potent antioxidant that can
neutralize free radicals due to its chemical structure .
Water and fat-soluble extracts of turmeric and its curcumin component exhibit strong
antioxidant activity, comparable to vitamins C and E. A study of ischemia demonstrated
that curcumin pretreatment decreased ischemia-induced changes in the heart [7]

3.Hepatoprotective properties: Turmeric is known to have a hepatoprotective characteristic similar to

silymarin. Studies have demonstrated turmeric’s hepatoprotective properties from a variety of hepatotoxic
injuries, including carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) [8] galactosamine and acetaminophen (paracetamol)
[9].Turmeric’s hepatoprotective effect is mainly a result of it’s antioxidant properties, as well as its ability to
decrease the formation of proinflammatory cytokines. Curcumin administration significantly decreased liver
injury [10].
4. Anticarcinogenic properties: Animal research demonstrates inhibition at all three stages of
carcinogenesis-initiation, promotion, and progression. During initiation and promotion, curcumin
modulates transcription factors controlling phase I and II detoxification of carcinogens. [11]

5. Antidiabetic properties: A hexane extract (containing ar-turmerone), ethanolic extract (

containing ar-turmerone, curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin) and ethanolic
extract from the residue of the hexane extraction(containing curcumin, demethoxycurcumin and bis
demethoxycurcumin) were found to dose-dependently stimulate adipocyte differentiation. The
results indicate that turmeric ethanolic extract containing both curcuminoids and sesquiterpenoids
is more strongly hypoglycemic than either curcuminoids or sesquiterpenoids [12].

6. Antimicrobial properties : Turmeric extract and the essential oil of Curcuma longa inhibit the
growth of a variety of bacteria, parasites, and pathogenic fungi. A study of chicks infected with the
caecal parasite Eimera maxima demonstrated that diets supplemented with turmeric resulted in a
reduction in small intestinal lesion scores and improved weight gain [13].
7. Gastrointestinal disorders :
Curcumin’s anti-inflammatory properties and therapeutic
benefit have been demonstrated for a variety of gastrointestinal disorders,
including dyspepsia, Helicobacter pylori infection, peptic ulcer, irritable bowel
syndrome, Crohn’s disease, and ulcerative colitis[14].

8. Cardiovascular diseases:
Turmeric’s protective properties on the cardiovascular
system include lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels, decreasing
susceptibility of low density lipoprotein (LDL) to lipid peroxidation and
inhibiting platelet aggregation [15].
II) Curcuma amada :
Curcuma amada Roxb. is an important member of this genus and is commonly
known as mango ginger due to the raw mango-like aroma of the rhizome. In
various regions of India, C. amada has different common names, including
amahaldi, amra haridra, amargandhi, amragandhi haridra, amad, ke-a-sanga,
sarabasa (Sa), taldiha, talia, sarbanaghati and ban-haldi. It is found wild as well
as in cultivation[16].

Whole plant Rhizome

Medicinal properties:
Curcuma amada has pharmacological significance for a variety of ailments. It effectively treats skin allergies ,
stomach problems, high blood cholesterol and has antioxidant properties and antibacterial activity. Details of
these pharmacological actions are given below[17].

1] Antibacterial and antifungal activity: A novel and natural antibacterial compound (difurocumenonol),
recently isolated from mango ginger, has high antibacterial activity against a wide spectrum of bacteria,
including Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter aerogenes, Yersinia enterocolitica, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus
aureus, Enterococcus fecalis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis and Listeria monocytogenes).

In addition to antibacterial activity, the antifungal properties of mango ginger have been documented. The
essential oils of C. amada, in addition to those of other plant species, show antifungal activity against
sugarcane pathogenic fungi such as Physalospora tucumanensis (light and dark races), Sclerotium rolfsii,
Helminthosporium sacchari, Fusarium moniliforme var[17].
2] Antioxidant properties :The antioxidant properties of crude methanol
extracts of C. amada rhizomes were evaluated using sulfur free-radical
reactivity with curcumin as a reference indicator, which was generated by
irradiating a 15 mM glutathione (GSH) solution. As a reference indicator for
reactivity with sulfur-free radicals, the diminution of a pure curcumin
sample was determined by a simple spectrophotometric method. [17]

3] Skin allergy :Curcuma amada is reportedly used in various herbal

preparations, including antiallergy formulations[17].
III) Curcuma aromatica: Curcuma aromatica Salisb. (Zingiberaceae) is an erect
perennial herb cultivated throughout India. This plant is commonly known as
Jangali Haldi (wild turmeric). The rhizomes are tuberous, large, orange-red and
aromatic and the fresh root has a camphoraceous odour.

Whole plant Rhizome Powder

Medicinal Properties:
1. They are used in combination with astringents and aromatics for bruises,
sprains, hiccough, bronchitis, cough, leucoderma and skin eruptions.

1. They are also widely used as a flavouring agent, condiment and a source of
yellow dye and possess strong antioxidant and antimicrobial properties[18].
IV) Curcuma zeodaria: Curcuma zeodaria Rosc, also known as white turmeric, zeodaria
or gajutsu, is a perennial rhizomatous herb that belongs to the Zingiberaceae family. The
plant is indigenous to Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and India, and is also widely cultivated in
China, Japan, Brazil, Nepal and Thailand. In India it is known by its several vernacular
names, the most commonly used ones being Krachura (Sanskrit), Gandamatsi (Hindi) and
Sutha (Bengali)[19].
Medicinal Properties:
Traditional uses: It is used traditionally for the treatment of menstrual disorders, dyspepsia,
vomiting[20] and for cancer[21].

1. Anti-inflammatory activity C. zeodaria showed promising anti-inflammatory activity in

experimental models. Compounds curzenone and dehydrocurdione obtained from methanolic
extract of the rhizomes suppressed 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) by 75% and 53%,
respectively, at a dose of 1 mmol application[19].

2. Antioxidant activity At 20 mg/ml, the essential oil of C. zedoaria was moderate to good in
antioxidant activity, good in reducing power and excellent in scavenging effect on 1,1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl radical but low in chelating effect on ferrousion.[19]

3. Anticancer activity and Anti-Inflammatory Activity: A study conducted by Hong et al. [22]
found that the methanolic extract of C. zedoaria had both anticancer and anti-inflammatory activity.

4. Antiamoebic activity Alcoholic extract of rhizome of C. zedoaria was able to inhibit the growth
of Entamoeba histolytica at a concencentration of 1–10 mg/ml.[23]
MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE OF KAEMPFERIA:
Kaempferia is a genus of plants in the ginger family. It is native to China,
India,andSoutheastAsia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Myan
mar etc.).
I) Kaempferia galanga: Kaempferia galanga L. (KG) is a small
monocotyledonous herb from Zingiberaceae that is well known for its
medicinal properties since decades. The plant is native to tropical Asia
including southern China, Indochina, Thailand, Taiwan, Malaysia and
India[24].
1.Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity:
Leaves and rhizomes of KG are used in traditional medicine to treat swelling, headache, stomach
ache, toothache and rheumatism [24].

2. Mosquito repellent and larvicidal activity:

Essential oils extracted from the rhizomes of KG have shown considerable repellent and larvicidal
activity against a number of mosquito species including Aedes aegypti , Aedes togoi, Armigeres
subalbatus, Anopheles barbirostris, Anopheles aconitus, Mansonia uniformis, Culex
quinquefasciatus, Culex gelidus, Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex pipens pallens .

These essential oils exert repellent effect against A. aegypti (effective dose (ED 50) = 30.73 µg/cm
2 ) with a complete protection time of about 3 h without irritating human skin . This protection time
increases further by the addition of 10% vanillin . The extracts have shown remarkable larvicidal
activity even against pyrethroid resistant strains of A. aegypti . Methanolic extracts of KG showed
100% mortality against A. aegypti, A. togoi and C. pipens pallens at a concentration of 100 ppm
that reduced up to 78% at the concentration of 50 ppm [25].
3. Antimicrobial activity: Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate isolated from extracts of KG
has considerable activity against Mycobactrium tuberculosis and Candida albicans .
More recently, this ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate by resazurin microtitre assay has
shown to inhibit drug susceptible and multidrug resistant clinical isolates of M.
tuberculosis with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.242 to 0.485 mM .
KG extracts have also been found to exhibit antimicrobial activity against a number
of organisms including Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Candida
albicans, Escheriachia coli, Klebsiella pneumonia, Salmonella typhi, Seratia
marcescens, Vibrios cholera, Vibrios parahaemolyticus, Enterococcus faecalis, and
Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC of 0.81, 3.25, 25, >6.5, > 6.5, >6.5, >6.5, >6.5,
>6.5,1.625 and >6.5 µg/ml, respectively[25].

4. Sedative activity: Inhalation of hexane extract of KG at doses ranging from 1.5 to

10 g has shown considerable decrease in locomotor activity in rats . This sedative
activity is due to ethyl trans-p-methoxycinnamate and ethyl-cinnamate that inhibits
locomotor activity in doses of 0.0014 and 0.0012 mg, respectively[26].
II) KAEMPFERIA ROTUNDA: The plant Kaempferia rotunda linn. belongs
to the family Zingiberaceae also
named bhuichampaka(Sanskrit), bhuchampa (Hindi) and blackhorm
(English). It is a fragrant aromatic herb with a tuberous rhizome distributed
throughout India. [27].

Plant Flower Rhizome

1. Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Activity: The ethanolic extract of Kaempferia rotunda
rhizomes exihibits Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic activity . The Phytochemical screening
showed the presence of Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Steroids, Tannins, saponins, flavonoids and
proteins which are responsible for Analgesic and Anti-inflammatory activity[28].

2. Traditional uses: Kaempferia rotunda known as kunci pepet or kunir putih in Indonesia, has
been traditionally used in as abdominal pain, sputum laxative, wounds, and diarrhea colic
disorder[29].
The plant is used in the folk medicinal system of Bangladesh for treatment of high blood
sugar levels as commonly observed in diabetic patients, as well as for treatment of pain. This plant
is considered as an important medicinal plant in the ancient system of traditional medicine
Ayuverda in India[29].
The drug “Hallakam” prepared from this is in popular use in the form of powder or as an
ointment application to wounds and bruises to reduce swellings. The tubers are useful in vitiated
conditions of vāta and kapha, gastropathy, dropsy, inflammations, wound, ulcers, blood clots,
tumours and cancerous swellings[30].

3. Anticancer Activity: a relatively polar chloroform fraction of K. rotunda, and determine its
activity against human breast cancer in vitro and in vivo[29].
MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE OF GENUS HEDYCHIUM:
Hedychium is a genus of flowering plants in the
ginger family Zingiberaceae, native to lightly wooded habitats in Asia. There are
approximately 70-80 known species, native to Southeast
Asia (Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, etc.), southern China,
the Himalayas and Madagascar[31,32].

The genus name Hedychium is derived from two ancient Greek

words, hedys meaning "sweet" and chios meaning "snow". This refers to the
fragrant white flower of the type species H. coronarium. Common
names include garland flower, ginger lily, and kahili ginger[33].

Members of the genus Hedychium are rhizomatous perennials, commonly

growing 120–180 cm tall. Some species are cultivated for their exotic foliage
and fragrant spikes of flowers in shades of white, yellow and orange[34].
I) HEDYCHYIUM SPICATUM: H. spicatum commonly known as
Kapoor Kachri or Ginger lilly is a Himalayan plant. It is distributed in
subtropical Himalaya in the state of Assam, Arunanchal Pradesh and
Uttarakhand within an altitudinal range of 1000 to 3000m.
It is tall stout herb with fleshy aromatic rhizomes, thick straight stem
with broad lanceolate leaves[35,36].
Medicinal properties of the species:
1. Antibacterial Activity: The methanolic extract of the rhizomes of H.
spicatum showed antibacterial activity against various tested bacterial pathogens.
The extract was highly active against Shigella boydii, Sh. soneii, Shigella
flexneri, B. cereus, Vibrio cholera, E. coli, S. aureus, Ps. aeruginosa and K.
pneumonia[37].
2.Folk and Traditional Medicinal Uses: The Indian medicinal system
(Ayurveda) described the species is useful in the treatment of swelling, asthma,
fever,and pain[38].
3. Anti-inflammatory activity:Alcoholic extract of the species possesses
significant anti-inflammatory activity against carrageenan-induced hind-paw
oedema in rat and mice[38].
Blood
Extracts
pressure
min at 10
carried onmg/kg pressure-lowering
and
cat[38]. of
ivity:
more the
The
at 25 hexane
mg/kg rhizome
extract
dose of rhizome
followed loweredactivity
showed
the
by hyptotension bloodmore
lasting blood
pressure
than by
30 80 mm
min, Hg for 16
experiment
5. Hepatoprotective properties: The ethyl acetate and alcohol extracts of dried
rhizomes were shown significant hepatoprotective activity, lowering the enzymes
such as serum glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (SGOT) and Serum Glutamate
Pyruvate Transaminase (SGPT) in albino rats intoxicated with Carbon tetrachloride
(CCl4) and also were comparable to marketed product.(38)
6. Antihyperglycaemic activity : Pretreatment of rats with hexane extract
significantly reduced the sharp rise in blood glucose level for the first 30 min of
poststarch feeding[38]
7. Hair growth promoting activity The hair growth promotion activity of hexane
extract(33%) and pentadecane (30%) showed good reduction in hair growth
time[38].
8. Tranquillising activity The therapeutic activity of the rhizomes of the species
was initially assumed due to the presence of essential oil, which showed mild
tranquillising activity of short duration on central nervous system[38].
II) Hedychium Coronarium : Hedychium coronarium is a monocotyledon
perennial herb which belongs to family Zingiberaceae. The coronarium
species for this genus (Hedychium) was described by Jhon Koenig in 1783. It
is commonly known as white ginger or butterfly ginger because its flower
looks like a flying butterfly [39].
Plant Flower Rhizome
1. Antimicrobial Activity : Hedychium coronarium shows broad spectrum of
antimicrobial activity. Leaf, flower and rhizome extracts of different solvents possess
antibacterial and antifungal activities. Methanolic extract of rhizome of Hedychium
coronarium exhibited strong inhibition against Staphylococcus enteric and
Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 0.05 mg/mL).(39)
2. Anti-Inflammatory activity : Anti-Inflammatory Labdane diteropenes from
Hedychium coronarium have been reported as an effective anti-inflammatory agent.
These compounds were found as able to inhibit the inflammatory mediators including
nitric oxide, inflammatory cytokines etc.(39)
3. Antiurolithiatic activity : Roots of Hedychium coronarium are found to be
effective in the treatment of kidney stones. Alcoholic extracts and aqueous extracts of
roots of Hedychium coronarium were evaluated for antiurolithiactic by an in vitro
model using calcium oxalate stones. Formulation cystone was used as a reference
standard. In results alcoholic extracts obtained from roots part shows highest
dissolution of Calcium oxalate (Kidney Stones) when compared to test extracts
at 10 mg concentration.(39)
IV) Genus Amomum: The genus Amomum is the second largest genus and comes under the family
Zingiberaceae (formerly known as Scitamineae) with ca. 150 species [40].
Amomum subulatum:
Large cardamom or Nepal cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is a large perennial spice crop
cultivated in the swampy places in north-eastern and the central Himalayan region of India. In India,
it was used as early as the 6th century BC in Ayurvedic preparations, as mentioned by Susrata
(Sharma et al., 2000). It has been given the name large cardamom, as it is being cultivated in a
larger extent and also due to its position in the trade. Large cardamom is called greater cardamom in
English, Sthulaila, Bhadraila in Sanskrit, Bara Ilachi in Bangla, Badi Ilayachi in Hindi, Peralam in
Malayalam, Periya elam, Kattelam and Perelam in Tamil, Pedda Yelakaya in Telegu and Didda
yelakki in Kannada. Roxburgh (1820a) was first to describe this plant in his ‘Plants of the Coast of
Coromandel’ and in ‘Flora Indica’ (1820b). (41,42)
MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE
1. Ethno-Medicinal uses: Traditionally, large cardamom has been used as
preventive as well as a curative for throat trouble, congestion of lungs,
inflammation of eyelids, digestive disorders and in the treatment of pulmonary
tuberculosis (43).
It is also useful in treatment of flatulence, loss of appetite, gastric troubles,
congestion and liver complaints (44).
2. Analgesic activity: Methanolic extract of seeds of A. subulatum at dose 100 and
300 mg/kg and ethyl extract at dose of 200 and 400 mg/kg, showed significant
analgesic effect.(45)
3. Anti-inflammatory Activity The ethanolic and aqueous extract showed anti-
inflammatory activity with a dose of 100mg/ml and 200mg/ml respectively .(45)
4. Antimicrobial activity: A. subulatum has a wide variety of secondary
metabolites such as tannins, alkaloids and flavonoids having antimicrobial
activities.Petroleum ether extracts of large cardamom showed antimicrobial
activity and were found active on Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli (-ve)
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (-ve) bacteria.(45)
5. Antioxidant activity: Antioxidant is the term used to describe a dietary component that can
function to decrease tissue damage by reactive oxygen. Antioxidants thus have great value in
preventing the oxidative diseases such as chronic fatigue, premature ageing symptoms,
degenerative cardiovascular and neurovascular diseases associated with ageing.(45)

6. Antiulcer activity :Ulcer is one of the most common global health problems affecting a large
number of people worldwide and shows major cause of morbidity and mortality . Crude
methanolic extract of the fruits of A. subulatum shows antiulcer activity . Similarly, methanolic
fraction, petrol soluble fraction, ethyl acetate soluble fraction, ethyl acetate soluble fraction
produces significant ulcer protection against ethanol induced ulcer . Likewise, essential oil of A.
subulatum inhibit ulcer formation by 60.91%, significantly in ethanol and aspirin induced gastric
ulcer . Methanolic extract of A. subulatum seeds possessed the hepatoprotective activity against
ethanol-induced liver damage in rats, as evidenced by the functional, physical, biochemical and
histological parameters[45].

7. Cardio-adaptogen activity A. subulatum has protective effect against the effect of acute or
severe stress induced myocardial damages [46]. Regular consumption of greater cardamom
may therefore be useful in treatment for patients with Ischemic Heart Disease (IHD), facing regular
stressful conditions.
V) GENUS ZINGIBER: Ginger (rhizome of Zingiber officinale) is a popular
herb for its culinary and medicinal value.
In addition to its flavoring effects, ginger is also considered an essential
component of the kitchen pharmacy and is particularly used in combination with
foods which cause delayed gastric emptying or flatulence such as beans, certain
pulses, and vegetables like
radish and cauliflower[47].
Plant Flower Rhizome
1. GINGER IN TRADITIONAL USE: Ginger is an important plant with several medicinal,
ethnomedicinal, nutritional attributes. Traditionally, in Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan syststem of
medicines, ginger is being used since ancient times, for the treatment of catarrh, rheumatism, nervous
diseases, gingivitis, toothache, asthma, stroke, constipation, diabetes, cough and cold, motion
sickness, menstrual cramps, cancer, and many more [ 48].

2. Medicinal Value Of Ginger in Nausea and Vomitting of Pregnancy (NVP): The majority (50–
90%) of pregnant women experience some degree of nausea and/or
vomiting (NVP) usually in the first few months of pregnancy, though its cause is largely unknown.It
was observed that almost 74% of pregnant women experienced nausea [49].

Approximately 1–2% of pregnant women experience a debilitating and life-threatening condition

called “Hyperemesis gravidarum,” whereby the nausea and vomiting are so severe that they can lead
to starvation and dehydration.[50]
This condition may also have serious implications for both the maternal and fetal health [51].

A significant decrease in nausea and vomiting was observed in pregnant women who used ginger
[52,53] .
Smith et al. demonstrated that ginger is as effective as vitamin B6 in improving the symptoms of
nausea, retching and vomiting in early pregnancy[54].
3. Antioxidant Activity: Ginger is a strong anti-oxidant substance and may either
mitigate or
prevent generation of free radicals. Ginger, which is the underground stem or
rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale Roscoe, contains polyphenol compounds
(6-gingerol and its derivatives), which have a high antioxidant activity [55].

4. Gastrointestinal relief: Modern scientific research has revealed that ginger

possesses numerous therapeutic properties including antioxidant effects, an
ability to inhibit the formation of inflammatory compounds, and direct anti-
inflammatory effects. Ginger is very effective in preventing the symptoms of
motion sickness, especially seasickness. Ginger reduces all symptoms associated
with motion sickness including dizziness, nausea, vomiting and cold sweating
[56, 57].
Some active components of ginger are reported to stimulate digestion,
absorption, relieve constipation and flatulence by increasing muscular activity in
the digestive tract [58, 59].
5. Anti-Inflammatory Effects:Ginger contains potent anti-inflammatory compounds called gingerols. These
substances are believed to explain why so many people with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis experience
reductions in their pain levels and improvements in their mobility when they consume ginger regularly. One
of the mechanisms by which ginger exerts its ameliorative effects could be related to inhibition of
prostaglandin and leukotriene biosynthesis[60].

6. Effect on cardiovascular system Ginger stimulates heart muscles, stimulates blood circulation throughout the
body. The increased blood circulation is believed to stimulate cellular metabolic activity which helps to relief
the cramps and tension. It also helps to reduce blood pressure and cardiac workload [61].

7. Hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic activity : Hypoglycemic potential of ginger was reported in streptozotocin
induced diabetic rats. Treatment with aqueous extract (500 mg/kg body weight) for a period of 7 weeks
significantly decreased the serum glucose, cholesterol and triacylglycerol levels in the treated diabetic rats
compared with the control diabetic rats [62].
Fresh juice of ginger was reported to possess hyperglycemic activity. The fresh juice of ginger (4 ml/kg body
weight) produced a significant time dependent decrease in blood glucose level in streptozotocin induced
diabetic rats [63]. The juice of ginger was also reported to control type I diabetes [64].

8. Breast cancer :The effects of chronic treatment with hot water extract of ginger rhizome on spontaneous
mammary tumorigenesis have been examined in mice. In mice given free access to extract of ginger
(0.125%) in drinking water, the development of mammary tumors was significantly inhibited [65].
9. Ginger induces Cell Death in Ovarian Cancer Cells: Gingerols, the active phytonutrients in ginger, kill ovarian
cancer cells by inducing apoptosis(programmed cell death) and autophagocytosis (self-digestion). A pro-
inflammatory state is thought to be an important contributing factor in the development of ovarian cancer. In the
presence of ginger, a number of keyindicators of inflammation (vascular endothelial growth factor, interleukin-
8 and prostaglandin E2) were also decreased in the ovarian cancer cells [66].

10. Immune Boosting Action: Ginger not only helps to keep warm in colder days, it also promotes healthy
sweating, which is often helpful during colds and flus. A good sweat may do a lot more than simply assist
detoxification. It provides protection against invading microorganisms, including bacteria such as E. coli and
Staphylococcus aureus (a common cause of skin infections) and fungi, including Candida albicans. Ginger
essential oil showed the improvement in humoral immune response in immune suppressed mice [67].

11.Antimicrobial activity of ginger: Ginger has been traditionally exploited for having broad range of
antimicrobial activity against both gram positive and gram negative bacteria and fungi. In vitro studies have
shown that active constituents of ginger inhibit multiplication of colon bacteria, these bacteria ferment
undigested carbohydrates causing flatulence, this can be counteracted with ginger [68]. It inhibits the growth of
Escherichia coli, Proteus sp, Staphylococci, Streptococci and Salmonella [69]. Ginger has strong antibacterial
activity and to some extent antifungal properties [70]. Ginger inhibits Aspergillus sp, a fungus known for the
production of aflatoxin, a carcinogen [71].
Fresh ginger juice showed inhibitory action against Aspergillus niger, Sacharomyces cerevisiae, Mycoderma sp.
and Lactobacillus acidophilus. Thus, ginger which is a normal ingredient of our routine food preparations can
provide protection against our natural enemies like bacterial and fungal pathogens.
II] Zingiber zerumbet: Zingiber zerumbet Smith. is an important
monocotyledonous plant belonging to Zingiberaceae commonly known as
shampoo ginger or pinecone ginger. It is widely distributed in South East
Asia. There are many traditional and folk uses of this plant in the treatment
of many diseases and ailments [72].

Plant Inflorescence Rhizome

MEDICINAL USES: 1. Traditional Uses: The rhizome of ginger has been
extensively used with remarkable therapeutic effects for the treatment of
inflammation, diarrhea, stomach cramps, bacterial infections, fever, flatulence,
allergies and poisoning [73, 74, 75,76, 77].

Powdered rhizome is used to treat ear infections, toothache and, in the form of
tea, to treat stomach disease (78). The leaves are also used in therapies for joint
pain. The juice of cooked rhizome was reported to be effective in combating
worms in children (79, 80). The creamy substance present in the mature
inflorescence, is rich in surfactants and serves as a natural shampoo (81).

2. Antimalarial Activity and cytotoxicity: Zerumbone, a sesquiterpene isolated

from the rhizome of Zingiber zerumbet, shows strong antimalarial and cytotoxic
activities. A series of zerumbone derivatives were evaluated for in vitro
antimalarial activity against Plasmodium falciparum and cytotoxicity against
human cancer cell lines (NCI-H187, KB and BC) as well as normal cells (Vero
cells). Three of the compounds showed potent antimalarial activity with
3. Gastroprotective effect: zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet, exert
gastroprotection activity against ethanol- induced gastric ulcer model
in rats[77].

4. Alzheimer's disease treatment: zerumbone has an enzymolytic

effect towards acetyl cholinesterase (anti-AChE). Zerumbone might
be a potential candidate for the development of anti-Alzheimer's
disease treatmen t[83].

5. Analgesic and anti-pyretic activities: Ethanolic extract of

rhizome exihiits promising analgesic and anti-pyretic activities[84].

6. Antitumor effects: the fresh rhizome extract with 95 % EtOH and

partitioned with diethyl ether exihibited zerumbone , an active
VI) Genus Alpinia : Genus Alpinia is a large genus of the
Zingiberaceae family, which is widely distributed in many tropical
regions of Asia, including China, India and Indonesia. This genus
consist of almost 250 species. Plants of this genus have been
utilized as traditional medicines, food and spices in many countries
such as China, Japan and India [86].
Plant Rhizome
1. Antimicrobial activity: Essential oil extracted from fresh
and dried rhizomes of A. galanga have potential antimicrobial
activities against a range of bacteria, fungi, yeast and parasite
[87].

2. Antiparasitic and insecticidal activity: Many parasites and

insects pose severe threat to human and animal health. A
number of medicinally important plants were tested towards
their potential as an antiamoebic agent and it was found that the
chloroform extracts from A. galanga to be highly effective with
an added desired advantage of less side effects than traditional
medicine, viz. metronidazole[87,88] .
3. Antiinflammatory and analgesic activity: Aqueous and
hydroalcoholic extracts from leaves and rhizomes of this species
possesses key factors responsible for antinociceptive(reducing
sensitivity to painful stimuli) and antiallergic properties[87,89].

4. Neuroprotective activity: A. galanga has been exhaustively

explored towards diverse biological activities in most of the cases
among different Alpinia species. Recently, chloroform fraction of A.
galanga has been found as antiamnesic probably due to 1’-S-1’-
acetoxyuginol acetate as lead compound [90].
5. Antifungal activity: The ethanolic extracts of Alpinia galanga found to possess good
antifungal activities against Trichophytonlongifusus. [91,92] Diterpene compound, (E)-8β, 17-
epoxylabd-12-ene-15, 16-dialsynergistically enhanced the antifungal activity of quercetin and
chalcone against Candida albicans[91,93]. 21 Strong antifungal activities of n-Hex and DCM
fractions of Alpinia galanga has been demonstrated by zone of inhibition assay. High phenolic
and flavonoid content and strong free radical scavenging activity of the fractions of A.galanga
has been observed[91,94].

6. Anti-Ulcer property: Extract of Alpinia galanga has been studied on experimentally induced
gastric ulcers in rats. At a dose of 500mg/kg of the ethanolic extract, the intensity of gastric
mucosal damage induced by pyloric ligation and hypothermic restraint stress in rats significantly
reduced. The experimental result shows significant antisecretory and cytoprotectively action of
A. galanga which may be responsible for its antiulcer activity [95]. The potent anti-ulcer
principles, 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate (1) and 1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate (2), were isolated from
the seeds of Alpinia galanga and established by chemical syntheses[96]. The effects of 1’S-1’-
acetoxychavicol acetate and related phenylpropanoids isolated from the rhizomes of Alpinia
galanga on ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats has been evaluated. It has been observed that,
1’S-1’-acetoxychavicol acetate and 1’S-1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate markedly inhibited the
ethanol induced gastric mucosal lesions[97].
VII) Genus Elatteria: Elettaria cardamomum is an important
member of family Zingiberaceae. Small cardamoms are popularly
known as ‘chhoti elaichi’ or the ‘true cardamom’ or ‘Ela’. Chhoti
elaichi has been the second most important ‘National Spice” of
India and is also rightly known as the ‘Queen of Spices’. This is
originated from India and Sri Lanka and is commonly cultivated in
southern India[98].
Medicinal Uses:
1. Antimicrobial activity:
The extracts from Elettaria cardamomum exhibited antimicrobial
activity against oral microbes. The essential oils from Elettaria
cardamomum showed marked inhibitory effects to select
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms. The alcoholic extracts of
cardamom seeds were found to possess antibacterial activity against
the human pathogenic strain of Salmonella typhi [99]. Elettaria
cardamomum is one of the ingredients of a herbal syrup that has
been found to have antimicrobial action against E.coli, B.proteus,
Klebsiella, and Pseudomonas.
2. Cardamom in Asthma: cardamom exhibits bronchodilatory
effect, mediated through Ca++ antagonist mechanism, which
provides pharmacological basis for its application in the disorder of
hyperactive status of respiratory system, known as asthma[100].
3. Anticarcinogenic activity: The oils from Elettaria cardamomum seeds
exhibited in vitro anticarcinogenic activity by inhibiting the formation of DNA
adducts by aflatoxin B1 in a microsomal enzyme-mediated reaction (101). This
enzymatic modulation may be due to the chemical constituents of the oils,
which form the basis for their potential anticarcinogenic roles.
4. Anti-ulcerogenic activity: The petroleum ether soluble extract from
Elettaria cardamomum seeds was screened for aspirininduced anti-ulcerogenic
activity in rats. The petroleum ether soluble extract inhibited lesions by nearly
100% at 12.5 mg/kg (102).
5. Dental Care: Cardamom has been used in Ayurveda and traditional
Chinese medicine for dealing with dental problems for many centuries.
After the invention of antibiotics, it was found that these antibiotics
produced mixed results, as well as side effects. Some side effects included
the inhibition of friendly probiotic bacteria thriving in the intestines.
However, the use of spices, on the other hand, is ideal because they inhibit
only infectious microbes, not the probiotic bacteria [103].
6.Hiccups: Hiccups can be very annoying, especially for children.
There are several remedies prescribed in folk medicine and one of
the most popular among them is startling a person who is
hiccupping. This may or may not work most of the time. However,
cardamom is another very effective remedy. Take a few pods of the
spice and boil them in water. By drinking this water, one can get rid
of hiccups [104].

7.Aphrodisiac Properties:Since cardamom gives out a sweet

flavor, it was traditionally believed to possess
aphrodisiac properties. Not only is cardamom regarded as an
aphrodisiac, but it is also believed to possess the cure for
impotence and premature ejaculation [105].
References:

[1].Nicolaou, K. C.; Vourloumis, D.; Winssinger, N.; Baran, P. S. Angew.Chem., Int. Ed. 2000, 39, 44–122.
[2].Fischer, N. H.; Olivier, E. J.; Fischer, H. D. Fortschr. Chem.Org. Naturst.1979, 38, 47.

[3]Yoshioka, H.; Mabry, T. J.; Timmermann, R.N. Sesquiterpene Lactones,University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo,
1973.

[4].Jantan, I.B.; Yassin, M.S.M.; Chin, C.B.; Chen, L.L.; Sim, N.L. Pharm.Bio. 2003, 41, 392–397.

[5].Prakash, V.; Mehrotra; B.N. Zingiberaceae of India:biological screening and ethnobotanical diversity, 1995.

[6].Prakash, V.; Mehrotra, B.N. Zingiberaceae of N. E. India: diversity and taxonomic status, 1995, 262–273.
1. Cronin, J.R. Curcumin: Old spice is a new medicine. Journal of
[7].Cronin, J.R. Curcumin: Old spice is a new medicine.Alternative & Complementary Therapies. 2003;9(1):34-8

[8].Ruby J, Kuttan G, Babu KD, Rajashekharan KN, Kuttan R. Antitumor and oxidant activity of natural
curcuminoids. Cancer Lett. 1995;94:79-83.
[9].Rao CV, Desai D, Rivenson A, Simi B, Amin S, Reddy BS. Chemoprevention of colon
carcinogenesis by phenylethyl-3methylcaffeate .CancerRes.1995;55(11):2310-5

[10].Park EJ, Jeon CH, Ko G, Kim J, Sohn DH. Protective effect ofcurcumin in rat liver injury
induced by carbon tetrachloride. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2000;52:437-40.

[11].Garg R, Gupta S, Maru GB. Dietary curcumin modulates transcriptional regulators of phase I and
phase II enzymes in benzo[a] pyrene treated mice: mechanism of its anti-initiating action.
Carcinogenesis.2008;29:1022-32.

[12].Nishiyama T, Mae T, Kishida H, Tsukagawa M, Mimaki Y et al. Curcuminoids and sesquiterpenoids

in turmeric (Curcuma l L.) suppress an increase in blood glucose level in type 2 diabetic KK AY mice. J
Agric Food Chem. 2005;53(4):959-63.

[13].Allen PC, Danforth HD, Augustine PC. Dietary modulation of avian coccidiosis. Int J Parasitol.
1998;28:1131-40.

[14].Louay Labban, Medicinal and pharmacological properties of Turmeric (Curcumalonga): A review, Int
J Pharm Biomed Sci. 2014;5(1):17-23,ISSN No: 0976-5263.
[15]. Ramirez-Tortosa MC, Mesa MD, Aguilera MC, Quiles JL, Baro L, Ramirez-Tortosa, CL et al.
Oral administration of turmeric extract inhibits LDL oxidation and has hypocholesterolemic effects
in rabbits with experimental atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis,1999;147:371-8.

[16]. Srivastava S, Srivastava M, Rawat AKS, Mehrotra S. 2006. Pharmacognostic evaluation of

Curcuma amada Roxb. Proc Natl Acad Sci India 76: 153–160.

[17].Shakeel Ahmad Jatoi, Akira Kikuchi , Syed Abdullah Gilani and Kazuo N.Watanabe,
Phytochemical, Pharmacological and Ethnobotanical Studies in Mango Ginger (Curcuma amada
Roxb.; Zingiberaceae), Phytother. Res. 21, 507–516 (2007)

[18].Chopra et.al.Chemical studies of the rhizomes of Curcuma aromatica Salisb.,

shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/39696/12/12_chapter%204.pdf

[19].Richard Lobo ,Kirti S. Prabhu, Dr Annie Shirwaikar ,Arun Shirwaikar, Curcuma

zedoaria Rosc. (white turmeric): a review of its chemical, pharmacological and ethnomedicinal
properties. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 61(1), 13–21.

[20].Prajapati ND et al. Agro’s Dictionary of Medicinal Plants, 1st edn. India: Agrobiosis, 2003.
[21].Etoh H et al. 9-Oxo-neoprocurcumenol from Curcuma aromatica (Zingibereaceae) as an attachment
inhibitor against the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis galloprovincalis. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2003; 67:
911–913.
[22].Hong CH et al. Evaluation of natural products on inhibition of inducible cyclooxygenase (COX-2) and
nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in cultured mouse macrophage cells. J Ethnopharmacol 2002; 83: 153–159.
[23].Ansari MH, Ahmad S. Screening of some medicinal plants for antiamoebic action. Fitoterapia 1991;
62: 171–175.
[24].Mitra R, Orbell J, Muralitharan MS (2007). Agriculture — Medicinal Plants of Malaysia. Asia Pac.
Biotech. News, 11: 105-110.
[25].Muhammad Ihtisham Umar , Mohammad Zaini Bin Asmawi , Amirin Sadikun , Rabia Altaf and
Muhammad Adnan Iqbal, Review -Phytochemistry and medicinal properties of Kaempferia galanga L.
(Zingiberaceae) extracts , African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology Vol. 5(14), pp. 1638-1647, 15
October, 2011
[26].Huang L, Yagura T, Chen S (2008). Sedative activity of hexane extract of Keampferia galanga
L. and its active compounds. J. Ethnopharmacol., 120: 123-125.
[27]. Gurung B. The Medicinal plants of Sikkim Himalaya. 1st ed. Gangtok: Jasmine Bejoy Gurung
Publisher; 2002.
28].TimaiPassah -2017,Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activity of Ethanolic Extract of Kaempferia
Rotunda Rhizome in Rats, repository-tnmgrmu.ac.in.

[29].Sri Atun*, Retno Arianingrum, Anticancer Activity of Bioactive Compounds from Kaempferia rotunda
Rhizome Against Human Breast Cancer, International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical
Research 2015; 7(2); 262-269.
[30].Warrier PK, Nambiar VP, Ramankutty C. Madras: Orient Longman Ltd; 1993-1995. Indian Medicinal
Plants; pp. 1–5.

[31]. Kew World Checklist of Selected Plant Families

[32]. Flora of China, v 24 p 370, jiang hua shu, Hedychium J. König in Retzius, Observ. Bot. 3: 73--74. 1783.
[33].Coombes, Allen J. (2012). The A to Z of plant names. USA: Timber Press.p. 312. ISBN 9781604691962.
[34].RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008.
p. 1136. ISBN 1405332964.
[35]. Samant SS, Dhar U. Diversity, endemism and economic potential of wild edible plants of Indian
Himalaya. Int J Sust Dev World 1997;4(1):79-91.
[36].Thakur
RS, Puri HS, Hussain A. Major medicinal plants of India. CIMAP Publication,
Lucknow; 1989. p. 50-2. 3.
[37]. Ritu Arora, Avijit Mazumder , Phytochemical Screening and Antimicrobial Activity of
Rhizomes of Hedychium spicatum, Pharmacogn J. 2017; 9(6)Suppl: s64-s68.
[38]. Sandeep Rawat, Arun K. Jugran, Indra D. Bhatt and Ranbeer S.Rawal, Review -
Hedychium spicatum:a systematic review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology
and future aspects, Royal Pharmaceutical Society, Journal of Pharmacy and
Pharmacology,Feb.2018, pg-1-26.
[39].Pooja Pachurekar and A. K. Dixit: A Review on Pharmacognostical Phytochemical and
Ethnomedicinal , Properties of Hedychium Coronarium J. Koenig an Endangered Medicine,
International journal of Chinese Medicine, Mar. 2017; 1(2): 49-61.

[40].Thomas VP, Sabu M, Gupta U (2009). Taxonomic studies on cultivars of Amomum

subulatum (Zingiberaceae). Rheedea, 19(1&2): 25-36. Verma SK, Rajeevan V, Bordia A, Jain V
(2010). Greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.) – A cardio-adaptogen against physical
stress. J. Herb. Med. Toxicol., 4(2): 55-58.
[41]. Roxburgh W (1820a). Plants of the Coast of Coromandel. Vol. 3. Mission Press,
Serampore.
[42]. Roxburgh W (1820b). Flora Indica. Vol. 1. W. Bulmer and Co., London. Sarkar PR (1986).
Yogic treatment and natural remedies, II ed. AMPS Publication, Tiljala, Calcutta, P. 85
[43]. Verma SK, Rajeevan V, Bordia A, Jain V (2010). Greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum
Roxb.) – A cardio-adaptogen against physical stress. J. Herb. Med. Toxicol., 4(2): 55-58.
[44]. Jafri MA, Farah KJ, Singh S (2001). Evaluation of the gastric antiulcerogenic effect of
large cardamom (fruits of Amomum subulatum Roxb.). J. Ethnopharmocol., 75: 89-94.
[45]. V. K. Bisht, J. S. Negi, A. K. Bhandari and R. C. Sundriyal, Review Amomum subulatum
Roxb: Traditional, phytochemical and biological activities-An overview, African Journal of
Agricultural Research Vol. 6(24), pp. 5386-5390, 26 October, 2011.
[46]. Verma SK, Rajeevan V, Bordia A, Jain V (2010). Greater cardamom (Amomum
subulatum Roxb.) – A cardio-adaptogen against physicalstress. J. Herb. Med. Toxicol., 4(2): 55-
58.
[47]. Gilani, A.H.; Ghayur, M.N. Ginger- from Myths to Reality. In Ethnotherapies in the
Cycle of Life; Gottschalk-Batsschkus, C.E.; Green, J.C.; Eds.; Ethnomed Institut für
Ethnomedizin e.V.; Munich, 2005; 307–315.
[48]. Yogeshwer Shukla, Madhulika Singh, May2007, Food and Chemical Toxicology,
Volume 45( 5), Pages 683-690.
[49]. Westfall, R.E. Use of Anti-Emetic Herbs in Pregnancy: Women’s Choices, and the
Question of Safety and Efficacy. Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery 2004,
10, 30–36.

[50]. Curry, W.L. Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Clinical Cannabis. To Eat or not to Eat? J.
Cannabis Therapeutics 2002, 2, 63–83.
[51]. Quinla, J.D.; Hill, D.A. Nausea and Vomiting of Pregnancy. Am. Fam. Physician 2003, 68,
121–128.

[52]. Fischer-Rasmussen, W.; Kjaer, S.K.; Dahl, C.; Asping, U. Ginger Treatment of Hyperemesis
Gravidarum. Eur J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprd. Biol. 1991, 38, 19–24.

[53]. Vutyavanich, T.; Kraisarin, T.; Ruangsari, R.A. Ginger for Nausea and Vomiting in
Pregnancy:Randomized Double-Masked, Placebo-Controlled Trial. Obstet. Gynecol. 2001, 97, 577–582.
[54]. Smith, C.; Crowther, C.; Willson, K.; Hotham, N.; McMillan, V. A Randomized Controlled
Trial of Ginger to Treat Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy. Obstet. Gynecol. 2004, 103, 639–645.
[55]. Rajesh Wakchaure and Subha Ganguly, Phytochemistry and Pharmacological Properties of
Ginger (Zingiber officinale), Book: Molecular Biology and Pharmacognosy and Beneficial Plants,
ISBN: 978-93-85995-56-9, Publisher: Lenin Media Private Limited, Delhi, India, Year of
Publication 2018.
[56]. Subashkumar Gupta, Anand Sharma, Medicinal properties of Zingiber officinale Roscoe - A
Review, OSR Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences, Volume 9, Issue 5 Ver. V (Sep -Oct.
2014), PP 124-12
[57]. J. Yamahara and Q. Huang, Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active
constituents. Chemical and Pharmaceutical bulletin, 38(2), (1990), 430- 431.
[58]. J. Stewart, M.J. Wood, C.D. Wood and M.E. Mims, Effects of ginger on motion sickness
susceptibility and gastric function. Pharmacology, 42(2), (1991), 111-120.
[59]. D.B. Mowrey and D.E. Clayson, Motion sickness, ginger and psychophysics. Lancet,i (1982),
655-657.
[60]. F. Kiuchi, S. Iwakami, M. Shibuya, F. Hanaoka and U. Sankawa, Inhibition of prostaglandin
and leukotriene biosynthesis by gingerols and diaryl heptanoids. Chemical and Pharmaceutical
Bulletin, 40(2), (1992), 387-391.
[61]. A.K. Ghosh, S. Banerjee, H.I. Mullick and J. Banerjee, Zingiber officinale: a natural gold, International
Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 2(1), (2011), 283-294.

[62]. Z.M. Al-Amin, M. Thomson, K.K. Al-Qattan, R. Peltonen-Shalaby, M. Ali, Antidiabetic and
hypolipidaemic properties of ginger (Zingiber officinale) in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats, British
Journal of Nutrition, 96(4), (2006), 660-666.

[63]. B. Asha, K.H. Krishnamurthy and S. Devaru, Evaluation of anti hyperglycaemic activity of Zingiber
officinale (Ginger) in albino rats, Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research, 3(1), (2011), 452- 456.

[64]. S.P. Akhani, S.L. Vishwakarma, R.K. Goyal, Anti-diabetic activity of Zingiber officinale in
streptozotocin-induced type I diabetic rats, Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 56(1), (2004), 101-105.

[65]. H. Nagasawa, K. Watanabe, H. Inatomi, Effects of bitter melon (Momordica charantia l.) or ginger
rhizome (Zingiber offifinale rosc) on spontaneous mammary tumorigenesis in SHN mice. American Journal of
Chinese Medicine, 30(2-3), (2002), 195–205.

[66]. J.M. Rhode, J. Huang, S. Fogoros, L. Tan, S. Zick, J.R. Liu, Ginger induces apoptosis and
autophagocytosis in ovarian cancer cells. Abstract no. 4510, presented April 4, 2006 at the 97th AACR Annual
Meeting, April 1-5, 2006, Washington, DC.
[67]. F.R. Carrasco, G. Schmidt, A.L. Romero, J.L. Sartoretto, S.M. Caparroz-Assef, C.A. Bersani-Amado
and R.K. Cuman, Immunomodulatory activity of Zingiber officinale Roscoe,Salvia officinalis L. and
Syzygium aromaticum L. essential oils: evidence for humor- and cell-mediated responses. Journal of
Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 61(7), (2009), 961-967.

[68]. S. Gupta and S. Ravishankar, A comparison of the antimicrobial activity of garlic, ginger, carrot, and
turmeric pastes against Escherichia coli O157:H7 in laboratory buffer and ground beef. Foodborne
Pathogens and Disease, 2 (4), (2005), 330-40.

[69]. B. White, Antimicrobial activity of ginger against different microorganisms: Physician, 75, (2007),
1689-1691.

[70]. P.V. Nielsen and R. Rios, Inhibition of fungal growth on bread by volatile compounds from spices
and herbs and mustard essential oil. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 60(2-3), (2000), 219-229.
[71]. S.P. Nanir and B.B. Kadu, Effect of medicinal plant extracts on some fungi. Acta Botanica Indica, 15(2), (1987),
170-175.

[72]. C.B. Singh., Kh. Nongalleima., S. Brojendro Singh., Swapana.N & Ch. Dhananjoy Singh, Zingiber zerumbet
Smith - an important medicinal plant of Zingiberaceae family, NeBIO ,Vol. 2, No. 4, December 2011, 9-13.

[73]. Adriana Y.Koga , Flávio L. Beltrame , Airton V. Pereira, ReviewSeveral aspects of Zingiber zerumbet: a
review, Volume 26, Issue 3, May–June 2016, Pages 385-391.
[74]. S. Tewtrakul, S. Subhadhirasaku, Anti-allergic activity of some selected plants in the Zingiberaceae family,J.
Ethnopharmacol., 109 (2007), pp. 535-538.

[75]. S. Okamoto, F. Yu, H. Harada, T. Okajima, J. Hattan, N. Misawa, R. Utsumi, A short-chain dehydrogenase involved in
terpene metabolism from Zingiber zerumbet, FASEB J., 278 (2011), pp. 2892-2900.

[76]. R.O. Prakash, A. Rabinarayan, M.S. Kumar, Zingiber zerumbet (L.) SM. a reservoir plant for therapeutic uses: a
review, Int. J. Res. Ayurveda Pharm., 2 (2011), pp. 1-23.

[77].H.M. Sidahmed, N.M. Hashim, M.A. Abdulla, H.M. Ali, S. Mohan, S.I. Abdelwahab, M.M.Taha, L.M. Fai, J. Vadivelu,
Antisecretory, gastroprotective, antioxidant and anti-helicobcter pylori activity of zerumbone from Zingiber
zerumbet (L.) Smith PLOS ONE (2015), 10.1371/journal.pone.0121060.

[78]. S. Ghosh, P.B. Majumder, S.S. Mandi , Species-specific aflp markers for identification of Z. officinale, Z.
montanum and Z. zerumbet (Zingiberaceae), Genet. Mol. Res., 10 (2011), pp. 218-229.

[79]. Somchit and Shukriyah, M.N. Somchit, A.H. Shukriyah, Anti inflammatory property of ethanol and water extracts
of Zingiber zerumbet, Indian J. Pharmacol., 35 (2003), pp. 181-182.

[80]. H. Ibrahim, N. Khalid, K. Hussain, Cultivated ginger of Peninsular Malaysia: utilization, profiles and
micropropagation, Gard. Bull. Singap., 59 (2007), pp. 71-88.
[81].F. Yu, S. Okamto, K. Nakasone, K. Adachi, S. Matsuda, H. Harada, N. Misawa, R.Utsumi, Molecular cloning and
functional characterization of α-humulene synthase, a possible key enzyme of zerumbone biosynthesis in shampoo
ginger (Zingiber zerumbet Smith) Planta, 227 (2008), pp. 1291-1299.
[82]. U. Sriphana, S. Pitchuanchom, P. Kongsaeree, C. Yenjai, Antimalarial activity and cytotoxicity of zerumbone
derivatives, Sci. Asia, 39 (2013), pp. 95-99.
[83].A. Bustamam, S. Ibrahim, A.S. Al-zubairi, M.Met, M.M. Syam,Zerumbone: a natural compound with anti-
cholinesterase activity ,Am. J. Pharm. Toxicol., 3 (2008), pp. 209-211.

[84]. M.N. Somchit, M.H.N. Shukriyah, A.A.Bustamam, A. Zuraini,Anti-pyretic and analgesic activity of Zingiber
zerumbet, Int. J. Pharm., 1 (2005), pp. 277-280.
[85]. G. Huang, T. Chien, L. Chen, C. Wang, Antitumor effects of zerumbone from Zingiber zerumbet in P-388D1 cells in
vitroand in vivo, Planta Med., 71 (2005), pp. 219-224.
[86]. Wei-Jie Zhanga , Jian-Guang Luoa and Ling-Yi Kong*,The Genus Alpinia: A Review of Its Phytochemistry and
Pharmacology, World J Tradit Chin Med 2016; 2(1): 26–41.
[87]. S. Ghosh ,L. Rangan, REVIEW ARTICLE- Alpinia: the gold mine of future therapeutics, 3 Biotech (2013) 3:173–185.
[88]. Sawangjaroen N, Phongpaichit S, Subhadhirasakul S, Visutthi M, Srisuwan N, Thammapalerd N (2006) The anti-
amoebic activity of some medicinal plants used by AIDS patients in southern Thailand. Parasitol Res 98:588–592.
[89]. Satish R, Dhananjayan R(2003) Evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of rhizome of Alpinia galanga Linn.
Biomedicine 23:91–96.

[90]. Singh HJC, Alagarsamy V, Diwan PV, Kumar SS, Nisha JC, Narsimha Reddy Y (2011a) Neuroprotective effect of
Alpinia galanga (L.) fractions on Ab(25–35) induced amnesia in mice.J Ethnopharmacol. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2011.08.048.
[91]. Anirban Chouni, Santanu Paul, A Review on Phytochemical and Pharmacological Potential of Alpinia
galangal, Pharmacogn J. 2018; 10(1): 9-15.

[92]. Khattak S, Saeed-ur-Rehman, Ullah-Shah H, Ahmad W, Ahmad M. Biological effects of indigenous

medicinal plants Curcuma longa and Alpinia galanga. Fitoterapia. 2005;76(2):254-7.
doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fitote.2004.12.012

[93]. Haraguchi H, Kuwata Y, Inada K, Shingu K, Miyahara K, Nagao M, et al. Antifungal activity from
Alpinia galanga and the competition for incorporation of unsaturated fatty acids in cell growth. Planta Med.
1996;62(4):308-13. doi:10.1055/s-2006-957890.

[94]. Sharma AS, Jain S, Bhatnagar M, Ghosal S. Inte ernational In vitro ro antibaccterial , an tifungal ,
antioxida ant and an ntihemoly ytic activit ties of Alp pinia galan anga Intr roduction. Int J Phytomedicine.
2015;7(1):78-89.

[95]. Al-Yahya MA, Rafatullah S, Mossa JS, Ageel AM, Al‐Said MS, Tariq M. Gastric antisecretory, antiulcer
and cytoprotective properties of ethanolic extract of Alpinia galanga willd in rats. Phyther Res. 1990;4(3):112-
4. doi:10.1002/ ptr.2650040308.

[96]. Mitsui S, Kobayashi S, Nagahori H, Ogiso A. Constituents from seeds of Alpinia galanga Wild, and their
anti-ulcer activities. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 1976;24(10):2377-82.
[97]. Matsuda H, Pongpiriyadacha Y, Morikawa T, Ochi M, Yoshikawa M. Gastroprotective effects of
phenylpropanoids from the rhizomes of Alpinia galanga in rats: structural requirements and mode of action. Eur
J Pharm. 2003;471(1):59-67 doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(03)01785-0.

[98]. Ravindran MK (ed.), Cardamom: the Genus Elettaria. Taylor and Francis, New York, NY (2002).

[99]. Singh, G., Shashi, K., Palanisamy, M., Valery, I., & Vera, V. (2008). Antioxidant and antimicrobial
activities of essential oil and various oleoresins of Elettaria cardamomum (seeds and pods). Journal of the
Science of Food and Agriculture, 88, 280-289.

[100]. Arif-ullah Khan, Qaiser Jabeen Khan and Anwarul-Hassan Gilani, Pharmacological basis for the
medicinal use of cardamom in asthma, Bangladesh J Pharmacol 2011; 6: 34-37.

[101]. Hashim, S., Aboobaker, V. S., Madhubala, R., Bhattacharya, R. K., & Rao, A. R. (1994). Modulatory
effects of essential oils from spices on the formation of DNA adduct by aflatoxin B1 in vitro. Nutrition and
Cancer, 21,169-175.

[102]. Jamal, A., Kalim Javed, A., Aslam, M., & Jafri, M. A. (2006). Gastroprotective effect of cardamom,
Elettaria cardamomum Maton, fruits in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 103, 149-153.
[103]. Isao Kubo, Masaki Himejima, and Hisae Muroi, Antimicrobial activity of flavor components of
cardamom Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae) seed, J. Agric. Food Chem., 1991, 39 (11), pp 1984–1986,
DOI: 10.1021/jf00011a020.

[104] .S.Suresh Babu, M. Madhavi, Green Remedies, Publisher- Pustak Mahal,2005,ISBN-

8122307132,9788122307139.

[105]. Ratika Sharma, Cardamom Comfort, Dental Research Journal, Vol 9, No 2 (2012).