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Tauseef Tauqeer 1

LECTURE 01-06
Chapter 10: Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis
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Key Concepts
• Characteristics of Sinusoidal Functions
• Phasor Representation of Sinusoids
• Converting Between the Time and Frequency Domains
• Impedance and Admittance
• Reactance and Susceptance
• Parallel and Series Combinations in the Frequency
Domain
• Determination of Forced Response using Phasors
• Application of Circuit Analysis Techniques in the
Frequency Domain
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Lecture 01: Agenda

1. Introduction and Background
2. Characteristics of Sinusoids
1. Lagging and Leading
2. Converting Sines to Cosines
3. Practices
3. Forced Response to Sinusoidal Functions
1. The Steady-State Response
2. A More Compact and User-Friendly Form
3. Observations
4. Example
5. Practices
6. Recap
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1. Introduction
• The response of a linear electric circuit is composed of
two parts
• The Natural Response: Short-lived transient response of a circuit to
a sudden change in its condition
• The Forced Response: Long-term steady state response of a circuit
to any independent sources present
• Up to this point, the only forced response we have
considered is due to DC source.
• Another very common forcing function is the sinusoidal
waveform which is available at household electrical
sockets as well as in power lines connected to residential
and industrial area.
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Natural or Transient Response

In electrical engineering and
mechanical engineering, a
transient response or natural
response is the response of a system
to a change from an equilibrium or a
steady state. The transient response is
not necessarily tied to "on/off" events
but to any event that affects the
equilibrium of the system.
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Natural Response
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Forced or Steady State response

• Forced response is the
system's response to an external
stimulus with zero initial conditions. In
circuits, this would just be
the response of the circuit to external
voltage and current
source forcing function
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Forced Response
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Characteristics of Sinusoids
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1.1 Radian
The radian is the standard unit
of angular measure. An
angle's measurement in
radians is numerically equal to
the length of a corresponding
arc of a unit circle, so one
radian is just under 57.3
degrees (when the arc length
is equal to the radius). This is
SI unit of angel.
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1.2 Time Period

• It follows that the magnitude in radians of one complete
revolution (360 degrees) is the length of the entire
circumference divided by the radius, 2π. Thus 2π radians
is equal to 360 degrees, meaning that one radian is equal
to 180/π degrees.
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1.3 Degree
A degree (in full, a
degree of arc, arc
degree, or arcdegree),
usually denoted by ° (the
degree symbol), is a
measurement of plane
angle, representing
1⁄360 of a full rotation;
one degree is equivalent
to π/180 radians. This is
not SI unit of angel.
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1.4 Degree and Radian

2π rad = 360o
1 rad = 180o/π
1.5 Chart to convert between
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Degrees and Radians

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1.6 Angular Frequency

• Angular frequency ω (also referred to by the
terms angular speed, radial frequency,
circular frequency, orbital frequency, radian
frequency, and pulsatance) is a measure of
rotation rate.
• Angular frequency ω (in radians per second),
is larger than frequency ν (in cycles per
second, also called Hz), by a factor of 2π.
This figure uses the symbol ν, rather than f to
denote frequency.
• One revolution is equal to 2π radians, hence
ω= 2πf = 2π/T
ω is the angular frequency or angular speed
(measured in radians per second),
T is the period (measured in seconds),
f is the ordinary frequency (measured in
hertz)
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2. Characteristics of Sinusoids
• Consider a sinusoidally varying voltage
v(t)=Vm sin(ωt)
Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid
ω = the angular frequency in radians/s
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

• The function repeats itself every 2π radians, and its period is

therefore 2π radians.
• A sine wave having a period T must execute 1/T periods each
second; its frequency f is 1/T hertz, abbreviated Hz.

The sinusoidal function v(t) = Vm sin ωt is plotted (a) versus ωt and (b) versus t.
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2.1 Lagging and Leading (1/2)

• v(t) = Vm sin(ωt + θ) includes a phase angle θ in its argument.
• Since corresponding points on the sinusoid Vm sin(ωt + θ) occur
θ rad, or θ/ω seconds, earlier, we say Vm sin(ωt + θ) leads Vm
sinωt by θ rad. It is also correct to say that sin ωt
• as lagging sin(ωt + θ) by θ rad, Two sinusoidal waves whose phases
• as leading sin(ωt + θ) by −θ rad, or are to be compared must:
• as leading sin(ωt − θ) by θ rad.
1. Both be written as sine waves, or
both as cosine waves.
2. Both be written with positive
amplitudes.
3. Each have the same frequency.

In either case, leading or lagging, we

say that the sinusoids are out of phase.
If the phase angles are equal, the
sinusoids are said to be in phase.
The sine wave Vm sin(ωt + θ) leads Vm sin ωt by θ rad.
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2.1 Lagging and Leading (2/2)

• In electrical engineering, the phase angle is commonly
given in degrees, rather than radians; to avoid confusion
we should be sure to always use the degree symbol.
Thus, instead of writing:

• We customarily use:

• In evaluating this expression at a specific instant of time,

e.g., t = 10−4 s, 2π1000t becomes 0.2π radian, and this
should be expressed as 36° before 30° is subtracted from
it. Don’t confuse your apples with your oranges.
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2.2 Converting Sines to Cosines (1/2)

• The sine and cosine are
essentially the same function,
but with a 90o phase
difference. Thus,
sin ωt = cos(ωt − 90o)
• Multiples of 360o may be
added to or subtracted from
the argument of any
sinusoidal function without
changing the value of the
function. Hence, we may say
that: Leads by 130o
Or v1 lags v2 as
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2.2 Converting Sines to Cosines (2/2)

• A graphical representation of the
two sinusoids v1 and v2. The
magnitude of each sine function
is represented by the length of
the corresponding arrow, and the
phase angle by the orientation
with respect to the positive x axis.
• In this diagram, v1 leads v2 by
100° + 30° = 130°, although it
could also be argued that v2
leads v1 by 260°. It is customary,
however, to express the phase
difference by an angle less than
or equal to 180° in magnitude.
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2.3 Practice