BUILDING SERVICES II

UNIT III- ILLUMINATION AND LIGHTING

Electric Light Sources

 The Five Most Common Electric Light Sources

 A luminaire (fixture) performs, depends a lot on the type of light
source (bulb or lamp) used.
 Different bulbs have different lighting effects, performance and pros
and cons. Probably the biggest driver of innovation in light sources
is energy efficiency, with LED technology leading the charge.
 The most common electric light sources used in residential,
commercial and industrial lighting including: how they work, pros
and cons, applications, average rated life and cost.
Incandescent
 When solids and liquids are heated, they
emit visible radiation at temperatures above
1,000 K; this is known as incandescence.
 An electric current passed through a gas
will excite the atoms and molecules to emit
radiation of a spectrum which is
characteristic of the elements present. Two
metals are commonly used, sodium and
mercury, because their characteristics give
useful radiations within the visible
spectrum.
 Incandescent bulbs produce light when an
electric current passes through a thin wire
(filament) causing it to glow. They are also
called general service, A-lamps or A-19
lamps.
 Reflector or parabolic reflector (PAR)
lamps, also known as flood or spot lamps
are a variation of an incandescent.
 Advantages: Incandescent bulbs have a low initial cost, put out a
warm, inviting light, are dimmable and can handle different wattages
up to specified maximums- in the same socket.
 Disadvantages: They use a lot of energy, of which less than 10% is
used for light. The rest is emitted as heat.
 A 100 watt light bulb generates enough heat to bake a cake in an
old Easy Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs are also not too hardy,
unless they are rated as “long-life,” the filament is easily damaged.
 Applications: Since they are less energy efficient than other light
sources, they are best used for task lighting that requires high levels
of brightness, for decorative use or where a warm light and colour is
more important than.
 Average Rated Life: Typically 700 – 2000 hours.
 Cost: Typically they have the lowest initial cost of all light sources.
Halogen
 Also known as tungsten-halogen, Is a
type of incandescent bulb that has been
around for 50 years.
 Halogen filaments (made from
tungsten) are housed in smaller quartz
bulbs filled with halogen gases, such as
iodine or bromine, which increase the
efficacy (measure of emitted light) of the
lamp versus a plain incandescent lamp.
 Halogen bulbs are available in two
types: line voltage - meaning the
voltage in a typical wall outlet (120/220
volts) - and low voltage (12 volt).
 Advantages: They are more energy efficient (up to 30 percent)
providing more light per watt than standard incandescent bulbs and
last 2-6 times longer than.
 They emit a bright clear light that is closest to daylight. Colours are
sharper with halogen light, which can also be dimmed. The optimal
Halogen option is the more efficient (IRC) infrared coated bulb,
which produces more light for the same amount of energy.
 Disadvantages: Halogen lamps are more expensive than standard
incandescent and burn at a higher temperature. They are highly
sensitive to touch; oil residue from a person’s hand can rub off on
the bulb, causing the bulb to heat up and explode.
 Applications: Typical halogen lamp applications include:
residential, decorative, task lighting, stage lighting and retail. They
are also often used in under-cabinet lighting, pendant lights and
recessed fixtures; in many cases they are being replaced with LED
light sources which last longer and are more durable.
 Average Rated Life: Typically 2,000 – 4,000 hours
 Cost: Initial cost is higher than incandescent, but lower than LED,
however halogen bulbs may need frequent replacement.
Fluorescent
 Is a low pressure mercury-vapor gas-
discharge lamp that
uses fluorescence to produce visible
light.
 Fluorescent bulbs were widely
introduced at the 1939 World’s Fair in
New York City. They developed and
evolved in response to energy crises
and were quickly adopted in military,
commercial and industrial spaces.
 The initial fluorescents were Linear
(plug-in), followed by Compact
Fluorescents (screw in) which became
popular in the mid-1980’s as a
replacement for incandescent bulbs.
 Advantages: Fluorescent lamps convert electrical energy into light more
efficiently than incandescent lamps. They give off a quarter the amount of
heat of an incandescent (less energy) and last 10 times longer. Fluorescent
improvements since the 1980’s have made them start faster, quieter, with
warmer colours and some are dimmable.
 Disadvantages: Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than
incandescent since they require a ballast to regulate the current through the
lamp. However the lower energy costs can offset the higher initial cost.
Because they contain mercury, they are classified as hazardous waste and
need to be disposed of properly.
 Applications: Linear fluorescents have typically been used in various
commercial, industrial spaces and applications with CFL’s (with integrated
ballasts) becoming widely popular in residential applications due to energy
saving and lower maintenance costs.
 Average Rated Life:
 Plug-in/Linear: Typically 24,000 to 36,000 hours
 Screw-base/Compact Fluorescent (CFL): Typically 8,000 to 10,000 hours
 Cost: Initial purchase costs have dropped significantly which provide a
cost/value that is hard to beat.
HID (High Intensity Discharge Lamps )
 HID lamps are a type of electrical
gas-discharge lamp which uses a
capsule of gas instead of the filament
used in an incandescent lamp.
 The light is produced from an arc
discharge between two closely
spaced tungsten electrodes and
through a plasma or ionized gas.
 They also use an additional gas with
serves to classify the main types of
HID lamps: Mercury Vapor, Metal
Halide and High Pressure Sodium.
 HID lamps require a ballast which
regulates the voltage supplied to the
capsule of gas, allowing the light to
start.
 Advantages: The amount of light produced by an HID lamp is
greater than a standard halogen bulb and it uses less power. They
are also known for a long rated life.
 Disadvantages: HID lights require time to warm up and the
aesthetic quality of the light is not that great – typically cool
white/blue or warm white/yellow.
 Applications: HID lamps are used primarily in locations where it’s
important to get as much visible light per watt for large areas, such
as in for streetlights, gymnasiums, warehouses, large retail facilities,
stadiums and for growing plants indoors.
 Average Rated Life: 10,000 to 24,000 hours
 Cost: Initial costs are lower than some other light sources, but
HID’s require regular lamp and ballast replacement.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
 LEDs are a semiconductor typically
made from silicon.
 As electrons pass through the LED,
it turns into light. LEDs are more
efficient at turning energy into light
compared to incandescent, CFL or
halogen bulbs since less energy
radiates from the bulb as heat.
 The term SSL (Solid State Lighting)
is common term for LED technology
being used for lighting applications.
It refers to technology in which the
light is emitted by solid-state
electroluminescence as opposed to
incandescent bulbs, where the light
is emitted via thermal radiation.
 Advantages: They are highly energy efficient and last much longer
than incandescent or fluorescent bulbs.
 They also emit light in a specific direction.
 They contain no mercury, lead, gas or toxic substances.
 They also have no failure prone moving parts and can withstand a
greater amount of vibration compared to traditional light sources
 Disadvantages :The cost is typically significantly higher than other
light sources.
 Applications: LEDs are rapidly replacing other light sources for
most general applications including indoor, outdoor and commercial
usage. Other common usages include: automotive headlamps,
horticulture and for backlights and display.
 Average Rated Life: 40,000 to 100,000 hours
 Cost: While the initial purchase cost of LEDs is higher than other
light sources, maintenance costs are very low. There are also
opportunities for rebates depending on your region, which can
significantly reduce the payback period of an LED investment.
Luminaries Classification

 Selection of the most suitable lamp consistent with design

objectives is critical to performance and cost of a lighting system.
 This decision should be carefully made before a luminaire for the
lamp is selected.
 Luminaires are designed for specific lamps.
 Lamps are constructed to operate at a specific voltage and wattage,
or power consumption. In general, the higher the wattage rating of a
specific type of lamp, the greater will be its efficacy, or lumen output
per watt.
 A lighting fixture is that component of a luminaire that holds the
lamps, serves as a protective enclosure, or housing, delivers
electric power to the lamps, and incorporates devices for control of
emitted light.
 The housing contains lamp holders and usually also reflective
inside surfaces shaped to direct light out of the fixture in controlled
patterns. In addition, a fixture also incorporates means of venting
heated air and houses additional light-control equipment, such as
diffusers, refractors, shielding, and baffles.

 To design a lighting system for specific conditions, it is first
necessary for the designer to determine the nature of and lighting
requirements for the activities to be carried out in every space in the
building.
 Also, the designer should cooperate with architects, interior
designers, and structural, electrical, and HVAC engineers, as well
as with the owner’s representatives.
 Use of natural light has the advantages, compared with artificial
illumination, of not consuming fuel and not having associated
operating costs.
 But daylight has the disadvantages of being dependent on the
availability of windows and on the absence of light-blocking
obstructions outside the windows, of not being available between
sunset and sunrise, and of providing weak light on cloudy days and
around twilight and dawn. When lighting is needed within a building
at those times, it must be provided by artificial illumination.
 The classification of
luminaries based on
diffuser type :
 1. Opal Diffuser : This type
is used to protect the
luminary against
“Moisture”
 2. Prismatic diffuser : This
type use to protect the
luminary against “ Dust “
 3. Louver diffuser : This
type use in offices to
distribute light and reduce
the glare .
 The classification of luminaries
based on ceiling type:
 1. Surface Mounted Lighting :
 2. Suspended Lighting : It’s
used for high ceiling ( more
than 6.5 m )
 3. Recessed Lighting : This
type use when there is False
Ceiling or Gibson Board ceiling
.
Lumen
 the SI unit of luminous flux, equal to the amount of light emitted per
second in a unit solid angle of one steradian from a uniform source
of one candela.
Lumen Method Calculations
 It is a simplified method to calculate the light level in a room.

 The method is a series of calculations that uses

horizontal illuminance criteria to establish a uniform luminaire layout
in a space.
 In its simplest form, the lumen method is merely the total number of
lumens available in a room divided by the area of the room.
 In order to perform this calculation, many factors, coefficients, lamp
lumen data and other quantities must be gathered.
 Introduction to the Lumen Method
 The lumen method is applicable to design of a uniform (general)
lighting scheme in a space where flexibility of working locations or
other activities is required.

Working Plane
 The lumen method is applied only to square or rectangular rooms
with a regular array luminaires

Spacing of Luminaires in Lumen Design Method

Lumen Method Calculations
 The lumen method is based on fundamental lighting calculations.
 The lumen method formula is easiest to appreciate in the following
form.

 where E = average illuminance over the horizontal working plane

 n = number of lamps in each luminaire
 N = number of luminaire
 F = lighting design lumens per lamp, i.e. initial bare lamp luminous
 flux
 UF = utilisation factor for the horizontal working plane
 LLF = light loss factor
 A = area of the horizontal working plane
Light loss factor (LLF)
 It is the ratio of the illuminance produced by the lighting installation
at the some specified time to the illuminance produced by the same
installation when new.
 It allows for effects such as decrease in light output caused by
 (a) the fall in lamp luminous flux with hours of use,

 (b) the deposition of dirt on luminaire, and

 (c) reflectances of room surfaces over time.

 In fact, light loss factor is the product of three other factors:

 where LLMF = lamp lumen maintenance factor

 LMF = luminaire maintenance factor
 RSMF = room surface maintenance factor
Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF)
 It is the proportion of the initial light output of a lamp produced after
a set time to those produced when new.
 It allows for the decline in lumen output from a lamp with age. Its
value can be determined in two ways:
 (a) by consulting a lamp manufacturer's catalog for a lumen
depreciation chart, and
 (b) by dividing the maintained lumens by the initial lamps.

Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF)

 It is the proportion of the initial light output from a luminaire after a
set time to the initial light output from a lamp after a set time.
 It constitutes the greatest loss in light output and is mainly due to
the accumulation of atmospheric dirt on luminaire. Three factors
must be considered in its determination:
 (a) the type of luminaire,

 (b) atmospheric conditions, and

 (c) maintenance interval.

Room surface maintenance factor (RSMF)
 It is the proportion of the illuminance provided by a lighting
installation in a room after a set time compared with that occurred
when the room was clean.
 It takes into account that dirt accumulates on room surfaces and
reduces surface reflectance.
Utilisation factor (UF)
 It is the proportion of the luminous flux emitted by the lamps which
reaches the working plane. It is a measure of the effectiveness of
the lighting scheme. Factors that affect the value of UF are as
follows:
 (a) light output ratio of luminaire (b) flux distribution of luminaire
 (c) room proportions (d) room reflectances
 (e) spacing/mounting height ratio
 Light output ratio of luminaire (LOR) takes into account
for the loss of light energy both inside and by
transmission through light fittings. It is given by the
following expression.
Example 1
 The total, upward and downward lamp output from a lamp are 1000
lm, 300 lm and 500 lm respectively. Calculate upward light output
ratio (ULOR), downward light output ratio (DLOR), light output
ratio (LOR) of luminaire and percentage of light energy absorbed in
luminaire.

 Amount of light energy absorbed in luminaire = 100 - 80 = 20 %

 A greater DLOR usually means a higher UF.
Figure 5 Flux Fraction of Various Luminaires
 A simple classification of
luminaires according to their
distribution is based on flux
fractions, as shown in Figure
5. Upward flux
fraction (UFF)
and downward flux
fraction (DFF) are used as a
basis of comparison.
Example 2
 For data given in Example 1
determine upward flux
fraction (UFF), downward flux
fraction (DFF) and flux
fraction ratio (FRR).
 Flux Distribution of Luminaire
 Direct ratio is the proportion of the total downward luminous flux from a
conventional installation of luminaires which is directly incident on the
working plane.
 It is used to assess the flux distribution of luminaire. Since the intensity
distribution pattern of the light radiated from a luminaire in the lower
hemisphere will affect:
 (a) the quantity of the downward flux falls directly on the working plane and
 (b) the quantity of flux available for reflection from the walls in a given room,
 Direct ratio depends on both the room proportions and the luminaires.
 Direct ratio has a low value with a narrow room (small room index) and a
luminaire which emits most of its light sideways (BZ 10), and on the
contrary, a high value with a wide room (large room index) and a luminaire
which emits most of its light downwards (BZ 1).
Room Proportion

 Room index (RI) is the ratio of room plan area to half the
wall area between the working plane and luminaire plane.

 where L = length of room

 W = width of room
 Hm = mounting height, i.e. the vertical distance between the
working plane and the luminaire.
Spacing to Height Ratio
 Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio of
the distance between adjacent luminaires (centre to centre), to their
height above the working plane.
 For a rectangular arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,
where A = total floor area
 N = number of luminaires
 Hm = mounting height
 Under a regular array of luminaires the illuminance on the working
plane is not uniform. The closer spaced the luminaires for a given
mounting height, the higher the uniformity; or the greater the
mounting height for a given spacing, the greater the uniformity. If
uniformity of illuminance is to be acceptable for general lighting,
 (a) SHR should not exceed maximum spacing to height
ratio (SHR MAX) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, and
 (b) geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the luminaire layout
should be within the range of nominal spacing to height
ratio (SHR NOM) of the given luminaire as quoted by the
manufacturer, i.e.
Summary of Procedures for Lumen Design Method
 (a) Calculate the room index.

 (b) Determine the effective reflectances of the ceiling cavity, walls

and floor cavity.
 (c) Determine the utilisation factor from the manufacturer's data
sheet, using the room index and effective surface reflectances as
found in (a) and (b) above.
 (d) Determine the light loss factor.

 (e) Inert the appropriate variables into the lumen method formula to
obtain the number of luminaires required.
 (f) Determine a suitable layout.

 (g) Check that the geometric mean spacing to height ratio of the
layout is within the SHR NOM range:
 (h) Check that the proposed layout does not exceed the maximum
spacing to height ratios (SHR MAX).
 (i) Calculate the illuminance that will be achieved by the final layout
and check against the standard.
 Room Reflectances
 The room is considered to consist of three main surfaces:

 (a) the ceiling cavity,

 (b) the walls, and

 (c) the floor cavity (or the horizontal working plane).

 The effective reflectances of the above three surfaces affect the

quantity of reflected light received by the working plane.
 The reflectance of the interior surfaces of a room has a big affect on
the average daylight factor.
 Especially the rear area of the room which is furthest away from the
window benefits enormously from bright surfaces because most of
the light will be reflected off the floor, walls and ceiling before it
reaches deep into the room.
 The following table corresponds to the
images above. It gives an overview
over the point daylight factors that can
be measured in the centre of the room
at a height of 0.85m.
 The benefits of having bright surfaces
will be more apparent in the back of the
room than they are near the window.
This is because a larger proportion, if
not all of the daylight will be indirect,
i.e. reflected off the walls, ceiling, and
floor.
 EXAMPLE 1:
 An office has length of 20m, width=10m,height=3m.
 1) Ceiling to desk height is 2m.
 2) Area to be illuminated to a general is 250 lux using twin lamp 32
watt CFL Luminaire with a SHR of 1.25.
 3) Each lamp has an initial output of 85 lumen per watt.
 4) Maintenance factor is 0.63, Utilisation factor is 0.69
 Design a lighting system for this office
 Step1 (find required lux
level)
 Step 2 (select luminaries)
 Luminaries is given in
question( CFL lumineries)
and their watt
 Total watt 2 x 32 =64 watt
 Step 3 (determine room
index and U.F)
 RI= 20 x 10 /(20+10) x (2)
 UF =0.69
 F= lumen efficiency x each
fixture watt
 F= 85 x 64
 = 5440 lumens
 Step 4 (Number of
luminaries required)
 N= E x A/F*UF*MF
 =250 x (20 x10)/5440 x
0.63 x 0.69
 =21 luminaries
 Step 5 (Minimum spacing
between luminaries)
 Ceiling to desk height is 2m and
SHR is 1.25
 Minimum spacing between
luminaries = 2 x 1.25
 =2.5m(c.t.c)
 Step 6 (Number of required row of
luminaries along width of room)
 Number of rows required = width
of room/minimum spacing
 =10/2.5=4 rows
 Step 7 (Number of luminaries in
each row )
 Number of luminaries in each row
=Total fixture/Number of rows
 =21/4 =5.25 =(5 approx)
 Step 8(Axial spacing between
each fixture)
 Axial spacing = length of
room/number of Luminaries in
each row
 = 20/5 = 4
 Step 9 (Transcerse spacing
Btetween each fixture)
 Transverse Spacing= Width of
room/ Number of Luminaries in
each row
 =10/4 = 2.5 m
 Example 2
 Design a lighting installation for a college seminar room so that the
average illuminance is 500 lux on the horizontal working plane,
using the data listed below. Suggest the layout and check
appropriate spacing to mounting height.
 Room dimensions: 12 m long x 8 m wide x 3.2 m high
 Working plane at 0.7 m above floor
 Reflection factors: Ceiling 70 %
 Walls 50 %
 Working plane 20 %
 Light Loss factor: 0.779
 Luminaires: 1800 mm twin tube with opal diffuser
 Ceiling mounted
 Downward light output ratio 36 %
 SHR MAX 1.60 : 1
 SHR NOM 1.50 : 1
 Dimensions : 1800 mm long x 200 mm wide
 Lamps: 1800 mm 75 W plus white
 5800 average initial lumens per lamp
 2 lamps per luminaire
 Solution
 (a) Initial calculation

From manufacturer's photometric data sheet (Table 3), utilisation factor

(UF) is 0.5336 by interpolation.
 Therefore, the number of luminairs is 10.
 Initial check on S/Hm ratio gives:
 From the manufacture's photometric data, maximum
S/Hm is 1.6 : 1. Therefore, it should be possible to use
10 luminaires.
 (b) Proposed layout
 A 5 x 2 array is proposed fro the lighting installation. (A
10 x 1 array is an alternative.)
 (c) Checking the proposed layout
 Since 2 x 1.8 m = 3.6 m < 8 m (width of room), the
proposed layout will fit.
EXAMPLE 3:
EXAMPLE 4: