ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

UNIT I
INTRODUCTION, HISTORY, INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS,
FOUNDATIONS OF AI, SUB AREAS OF AI, APPLICATIONS.
PROBLEM SOLVING - STATE-SPACE SEARCH AND CONTROL
STRATEGIES: INTRODUCTION, GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVING,
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROBLEM,
EXHAUSTIVE SEARCHES, HEURISTIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES,
ITERATIVE-DEEPENING A*, CONSTRAINT SATISFACTION.
GAME PLAYING, BOUNDED LOOK-AHEAD STRATEGY AND
USE OF EVALUATION FUNCTIONS, ALPHA-BETA PRUNING
 Definition of AI
It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent

machines which can behave like a human, think like humans, and able to
make decisions.
Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning, reasoning,
and solving problems
With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work, despite that you
can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own intelligence, and that is
the awesomeness of AI.
 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE

Intelligence: “The capacity to learn and solve problems”

 Artificial Intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human
intelligence by machines.
• The ability to solve problems
• The ability to act rationally
• The ability to act like humans
 Why Artificial Intelligence?
Before Learning about AI, we should know that what is the importance of AI and why should
we need to learn it. These are the some main reasons to learn about AI:

With the help of AI, you can able to create such software or devices which can solve real-world
problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues, etc.

With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana, Google
Assistant, Siri, etc.

With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where
survival of humans can be at risk.

It opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.
 Goals of Artificial Intelligence
The main goals of Artificial Intelligence:

Replicate human intelligence

Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks

An intelligent connection of perception and action

Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
 Proving a theorem
 Playing chess
 Plan some surgical operation
 Driving a car in traffic

Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself, demonstrate, explain, and can
advise to its user.
A.I. TIMELINE
 Foundations of Artificial Intelligence?
AI is not just a part of computer science it's so vast and requires lots of other factors which can contribute to it. First we should
know that how intelligence is composed, then how Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a combination
of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding, etc.

To achieve the above factors for a machine or software AI involves in the following discipline:

Mathematics

Biology

Psychology

Sociology

Computer Science

Neurons Study

Statistics
APPROACHES OF A.I.

CYBERNETICS &
STATISTICAL
BRAIN
APPROACH
SIMULATION

SYMBOLIC COGNITIVE
APPROACH SIMULATION
Sub Areas of Artificial Intelligence
 Applications of AI
A.I. FOR FOOD AVIATION EDUCATION

• Analyse Satellite • Gate allocation for • Companies are

Images to identify plane w hile landing creating robots
which areas have the • Ticket price to teach subjects
highest poverty level determination
 HEALTHCARE HEAVY INDUSTRY FINANCE

• Solving a variety of • Robots have become very • Algorithmic Trading

problems of patients, common in many industries • Market analysis & data
hospitals & healthcare mining
• Can do repetitive
industry overall. • Personal Finance
laborious tasks • Portfolio management
• Using Avatars in place of
patients.
 Intelligent Systems
An intelligent system is a machine with an embedded, Internet-connected computer that has the
capacity to gather and analyze data and communicate with other systems. Other criteria for intelligent
systems include the capacity to learn from experience, security, connectivity, the ability to adapt
according to current data and the capacity for remote monitoring and management.
In the earliest the first intelligence system was TURING MACHINE in 1950 proposed by Alan Turing
 He defined intelligent behaviors as the ability to achieve human-level performance in all cognitive
tasks, sufficient to fool an interrogator he said that system is called a intelligent if it has an ability to
pass the Turing test.
 A system is said to have passed a Turing test if a human questioner is unable to determine from
repeated questions of any kind, weather he or she is talking to another person or to a machine
system
 ELIZA
It is very first intelligent system passed the Turing test is ELIZA
The original program was described by Joseph Weizenbaum in 1966.
This implementation ('elizabot.js') by Norbert Landsteiner 2005.
 Graphics and real-time text to speech integration added in 2013.
The Main Characteristics are :
Simulation of Intelligence
Quality of response
Coherence
Semantics
 Categorization of Intelligent Systems

It is very first intelligent system passed the Turing test is ELIZA

Systems that think like Human
. Systems that acts like Human
Systems that think Rationally
Systems that acts Rationally
Some of the capabilities
Reason and draw meaningful occlusion
Plan sequence of actions to complete a goal
Solve Problems
Think abstractly
Comprehend ideas and help computers to communicate in Natura Language
Store knowledge provided before or during integration
Learn new concepts and tasks that require high level of intelligence
 Components of AI Program

Independent of the problem domain as far as possible

Knowledge base
Control Strategy
Inference Mechanism
 Intelligent Systems in Your Everyday Life

 Post Office
Automatic address recognition and sorting of mail
 Banks
Automatic check readers, signature verification systems
Automated loan application classification
 Telephone Companies
Automatic voice recognition for directory inquiries
 Credit Card Companies
Automated fraud detection
 Computer Companies
Automated diagnosis for help-desk applications
 Netflix:
Movie recommendation
 Google:
Search Technology
We can form various production rules as presented in water-jug problem.
Let Missionary is denoted by ‘M’ and Cannibal, by ‘C’. These rules are
described below:
Rule 1: (0, M): One missionary sailing the boat from bank-1 to bank-2
Rule 2: (M, 0): One missionary sailing the boat from bank-2 to bank-1
Rule 3: (M, M): Two missionaries sailing the boat from bank-1 to bank-2
Rule 4 : (M, M) : Two missionaries sailing the boat from bank-2 to bank-1
Rule 5 : (M, C) : One missionary and one Cannibal sailing the boat from
bank-1 to bank-2
Rule 6 : (C, M) : One missionary and one Cannibal sailing the boat from
bank-2 to bank-1
Rule 7 : (C, C) : Two Cannibals sailing the boat from bank-1 to bank-2
Rule 8 : (C, C) : Two Cannibals sailing the boat from bank-2 to bank-1
Rule 9 : (0, C) : One Cannibal sailing the boat from bank-1 to bank-2
Rule 10 : (C, 0) : One Cannibal sailing the boat from bank-2 to bank-1
All or some of these production rules will have to be used in a particular
sequence to find the solution of the problem. The rules applied and their
sequence is presented in the following Table.
 State Space Search
It can be find a path from the start state to goal state while solving a problem
It consists of four components
◦ A state S containing the start state of the problem
◦ A set G containing the goal state of the problem
◦ Set of nodes (states) in the graph/tree each node represents the state in problem
solving process
◦ Set of arcs connecting nodes each are corresponds to operator that is a step in a
problem solving process
 Introduction to Hill Climbing
Hill Climbing is a heuristic search used for mathematical optimization problems in A I
 .Given a large set inputs and a good heuristic function, it tries to find a sufficiently good solution to
the problem. This solution may not be the global optimal maximum.
In this mathematical optimization problems implies that hill-climbing solves the problems where
we need to maximize or minimize a given real function by choosing values from the given inputs.
Example-Travelling salesman problem where we need to minimize the distance traveled by the
salesman.
‘Heuristic search’ means that this search algorithm may not find the optimal solution to the problem. it
will give a good solution in reasonable time.
A heuristic function is a function that will rank all the possible alternatives at any branching step in
search algorithm based on the available information. It helps the algorithm to select the best route out of
possible routes.
 Features of Hill Climbing
1. Variant of generate and test algorithm : It is a variant of generate and test algorithm. The generate and test algorithm is as
follows :
1. Generate possible solutions.
2. Test to see if this is the expected solution.
3. If the solution has been found quit else go to step 1.
it is a Hill climbing as a variant of generate and test algorithm as it \takes the feedback
from the test procedure. Then this feedback is utilized by the generator in deciding the
next move in search space.

2. Uses the Greedy approach : At any point in state space, the search moves in that direction only which optimizes the cost of
function with the hope of finding the optimal solution at the end.
 Types of Hill Climbing
Simple Hill climbing : It examines the neighboring nodes one by one and selects the first
neighboring node which optimizes the current cost as next node.
Algorithm for Simple Hill climbing :
 Step 1 : Evaluate the initial state. If it is a goal state then stop and return success. Otherwise, make initial state as current state.
 Step 2 : Loop until the solution state is found or there are no new operators present which can be applied to the current state.
a) Select a state that has not been yet applied to the current state and apply it to produce a new state.
b) Perform these to evaluate new state
I . If the current state is a goal state, then stop and return success.
ii. If it is better than the current state, then make it current state and proceed
further.
iii. If it is not better than the current state, then continue in the loop until
a solution is found.
 Step 3 : Exit.
 Steepest-Ascent Hill climbing
It first examines all the neighboring nodes and then selects the node closest
to the solution state as of next node.
Step 1 : Evaluate the initial state. If it is goal state then exit else make the current state as initial state
Step 2 : Repeat these steps until a solution is found or current state does not change
i. Let ‘target’ be a state such that any successor of the current state will be better than it;
ii. for each operator that applies to the current state
a. apply the new operator and create a new state
b. evaluate the new state
c. if this state is goal state then quit else compare with ‘target’
d. if this state is better than ‘target’, set this state as ‘target’
e. if target is better than current state set current state to Target
Step 3 : Exit
 Stochastic Hill Climbing

It does not examine all the neighboring nodes before deciding which
node to select .It just selects a neighboring node at random and
decides (based on the amount of improvement in that neighbor)
whether to move to that neighbor or to examine another.
 State Space Diagram for Hill Climbing
Different regions in the State Space Diagram
• 1.Local maximum: It is a state which is better than its neighboring state however there exists a state which is better than it(global maximum). This state is
better because here the value of the objective function is higher than its neighbors.
• 2.Global maximum : It is the best possible state in the state space diagram. This because at this state, objective function has highest value.
• 3.Plateua/flat local maximum : It is a flat region of state space where neighboring states have the same value.
• 4.Ridge : It is region which is higher than its neighbors but itself has a slope. It is a special kind of local maximum.
• 5.Current state : The region of state space diagram where we are currently present during the search.
• 6.Shoulder : It is a plateau that has an uphill edge.
 Problems in Different Regions in Hill climbing
Hill climbing cannot reach the optimal/best state(global maximum) if it enters any of the following regions :
1.Local maximum : At a local maximum all neighboring states have a values which is worse than the current state. Since hill-
climbing uses a greedy approach, it will not move to the worse state and terminate itself. The process will end even though a
better solution may exist.
• To overcome local maximum problem : Utilize backtracking technique. Maintain a list of visited states. If the search reaches
an undesirable state, it can backtrack to the previous configuration and explore a new path.
2.Plateau : On plateau all neighbors have same value . Hence, it is not possible to select the best direction.
• To overcome plateaus : Make a big jump. Randomly select a state far away from the current state. Chances are that we will
land at a non-plateau region
3.Ridge : Any point on a ridge can look like peak because movement in all possible directions is downward. Hence the
algorithm stops when it reaches this state.
• To overcome Ridge : In this kind of obstacle, use two or more rules before testing. It implies moving in several directions at
once.