MADE BY: HUZAIFA ALI

ROLL NO: 18CE193

SUBMITTED TO:
SIR AMMAR ALI MEMON
 DEFINE OUTCROP:

 When weathering and erosion expose part of a rock

layer or formation, an outcrop appears. An outcrop is
the exposed rock, so named because the exposed
rock "crops out.“
 Outcrops provide opportunities for field geologists to
sample the local geology
OUTCROPS:
OUTCROPS ON MARS
 OUTCROPS ON MARS
 This set of images compares the Link outcrop of
rocks on Mars (left) with similar rocks seen on Earth
(right). The image of Link, obtained by NASA's
Curiosity rover, shows rounded gravel fragments, or
clasts, up to a couple inches (few centimeters),
within the rock outcrop. Erosion of the outcrop
results in gravel clasts that fall onto the ground,
creating the gravel pile at left.
 DEFINE OUTLIER
 An outlier is an area of younger rock completely
surrounded by older rocks. An outlier is typically
formed when sufficient erosion of surrounding rocks
has taken place to sever the younger rock's original
continuity with a larger mass of the same younger
rocks nearby.
OUTLIER
 DEFINE INLIER
 An inlier is an area of older rocks surrounded by
younger rocks. Inliers are typically formed by
the erosion of overlying younger rocks to reveal a
limited exposure of the older underlying rocks.
INLIER
 DEFINE OVERLAP
 Onlap or overlap is the geologic phenomenon of
successively wedge-shaped younger
rock strata extending progressively further across
an erosion surface cut in older rocks. It is generally
associated with a marine transgression. It is a more
general term than overstep, in which the younger beds
overlap onto successively older beds.
OVERLAP
 DEFINE CROSS-BEDDING
 Sedimentary rocks are normally deposited as
horizonal layers. Even when folded or tilted by faulting
the originally horizontal layering is obvious. Upon
closer examination, however, you may see very fine
layers (usually 1 to several mm thick) that are at an
angle to the main bedding. These tilted layers
contained within larger layers are termed cross
bedding.
CROSS-BEDDING
 DEFINE SILTING
 The filling up or raising of the bed of a body of water b
y depositing silt is called silting.
 DEFINE SCOURING
 An erosion process resulting from the action of the
flow of air, ice, or water is called scouring.
 IGNEOUS ROCKS:CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON MODE OF
SOLIDIFICATION OF MAGMA
 On the basis of solidification of magma,igneous rocks
are classified into following three types:
 1) PLUTONIC ROCKS:
 Plutonic rocks are igneous rocks that solidified from a
melt at great depth. Magma rises, bringing minerals
and precious metals such as gold, silver, molybdenum,
and lead with it, forcing its way into older rocks. It
cools slowly (tens of thousands of years or longer),
underneath Earth's crust, which allows the individual
crystals to grow large by coalescing, like with like;
thus, plutonic rock is coarse-grained rock erosion.
 PLUTONIC ROCKS
 The rock is later exposed by erosion. A large body of
this type of rock is called a pluton. Hundreds of miles
of plutonic rock are batholiths.these are aslo called
intrusive rocks.
 HYPABYSSAL ROCKS:
 2) HYPABYSSAL ROCKS:
 Igneous rocks which form at shallow depths in the
earth are known as hypabyssal rocks. They generally
have smaller crystals. Examples of hyabyssal rocks
include dolerite, microgranite and microdiorite.
HYPABYSSAL ROCKS
 VOLCANIC ROCKS:
 3) VOLCANIC ROCKS:
 When magma is solidified on the surface of earth,the
rocks are formed known as volcanic rocks.They are
also called extrusive rocks.
STRUCTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS:
 There are two types of structure:
 1) MEGA STRUCTURES:
These are usually formed in the flow stage of the magma
(i.e., in the extrusive rocks), and include:
 (i) Vesicular and amygdaloidal structures:
 When lavas heavily charged with gases and other
volatiles are erupted on the surface, the gaseous
constituent’s escapes from the magma as there is a
decrease in the pressure. Thus, near the top of flows,
empty cavities of variable dimensions are formed. The
individual openings are known as vesicles and the
structure as a whole is known as vesicular structure.
 (ii) Cellular or scoriaceous structure:
 By the bubbling out of the gases, from lava heavily charged
with volatile and gaseous constituents, numerous cavities
are formed with the solidification of the lava. When the
cavities are very much abundant, the term ‘pumice’ or
‘rock-froth’ is applied. Such structures are known as
cellular or scoriaceous structures .
 (vi) Pillow structure:
 It consists of isolated pillow shaped masses piled one
upon another… These are produced by extrusion of
lava into rain-soaked air, beneath ice-sheets, under
water logged sediments or in sea water.
 And there are many more types of mega structure.
 2) MINOR STRUCTURE:
These structures are formed in the fluid stage of the
magma (i.e., in the intrusive rocks) and include the
following:
 (i) Primary foliation:
 Sometimes many plutonic rocks are characterised by
foliation resulting from the parallel arrangement of
platy and ellipsoidal mineral grains.
 (ii) Banding in rocks:
 These are also known as layered rocks consisting of
alternating bands of different composition. It may
result from lamellar flow, from settling of minerals
from a crystallized magma or from successive
injections.
 3) MICRO STRUCTURES:
 These are formed due to reaction between already
solidified crystals and the rest of the magma and
include the following:
 (i) Orbicular structure:
 These are spherical segregations consisting of
concentric shells of different mineral composition and
texture, which occasionally occurs in granitic rocks.
 (ii) Perlitic-cracks:
 These are curved, concentric lines of fracture, often
seen in volcanic glass. These are simply due to
contraction of the glassy mass on cooling.
 (iii) Graphic structure:
 It results from an intergrowth of quartz and orthoclase
feldspar.