BUILDING STRUCTUTRE

 A building structure is a man-made structure with

a roof and walls standing more or less
permanently in one place, such as a house or
factory.

 Buildings are classified into two categories.

1) Based on the occupancy.

2) Based on the type of
construction.
Buildings classified, based on the occupancy:
Every building or portion of land shall be classified according to
its use or the character of its occupancy as a building of
Occupancy. They are categorized into the following types.
1) Agricultural buildings
2) Commercial buildings
3) Residential buildings
4) Educational buildings
5) Government buildings
6) Industrial buildings
7) Military buildings
8) Religious buildings
9) Transport buildings
10) Power plants
CLASSIFICATION
OF BUILDING
BASED ON
CONSTRUCTION
Based on the type of construction,
buildings are classified into 5
categories.
1)Fire resistive Buildings

2)Non–Combustible Buildings

3)Ordinary Buildings

4)Heavy timber Buildings

5)Wood framed Buildings

 Single Storey Buildings:
Single storey factory buildings with different roof
structures such as flat, bow string, etc
 Advantages:
(a) Easy to expand.
(b) Greater flexibility in layout.
((c) Natural light and ventilation can be supplied through the roof.

(d) Foundations required to be made are light.

(e) A single storey building requires less time to erect.
(f) Since floor to floor movements are not involved, material handling
costs are lower.
(g) One floor level makes supervision and control easier.
(h) Less mechanical vibrations are involved.
(i) Heavy machinery can be installed.
(j) It is easy to isolate abnoxious or hazardous areas.
(k) No space is lost due to elevators and stairs.
(l) Building costs are less compared with a multi-storey factory of the
same gross area.
(m) Permits high ceilings.
(n) Needs fewer columns.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(o) The risk of serious fire damage is less.
(p) Involves less operating cost.
(q) Maintenance of building and equipment is easy.
 Disadvantages

(a) Single storey factory buildings do not make most

effective use of land.
(b) They need more land.
(c) Layout is not very compact.
(d) Gravity cannot be employed for material handling
purposes.
(e) Valuable production floor space is occupied by
offices and stores.
 Use

Single storey factory buildings are used where:

(i) Land is relatively cheap.
(ii) Heavy machinery is required for processing.
(iii) Growth of factory is expected.

2. High Bay and Monitor Type Buildings:

They are basically single storey buildings. For a given floor space, they
provide maximum overhead space. Large overhead space can be
utilised for operating cranes. Natural ventilation and natural illumination
are the main advantages for these types of factory buildings. Foundry
and steel mill buildings are generally of monitor or high bay type.
 Multi-Storey Buildings
Advantages:

(a) They possess distinct material handling advantages where goods can
be moved by gravity.
(b) They provide for maximum operating floor space per square metre of
land.
(c) They involve a lower site cost for a given production area.
(d) They need less land and make more efficient use of land.
(e) They make a more compact layout.
(f) They involve lower heating costs.
(g) Top stories may be utilised for light stores and offices thereby
increasing the size of production floor on the ground level.
 Disadvantages
(a) Material handling is expensive for bulky materials.
(b) More time is taken by persons and materials in transit from one floor to
another.
(c) Stairways, elevators, etc. reduce the effective area and thus increase
the cost per square meter of usable space.
(d) The more the number of stories, the higher is the cost of foundations and
the more is the space occupied by supporting columns.
(e) Natural illumination in the centre of a multi-storey building is poor.
(f) Changes in width and length of upper floors (for expansion purposes) is
not possible.

Uses
Multistory factory buildings are used:
(i) Where cost of land is relatively high.
(ii) In process industries such as refineries, chemicals, fertilizers, floor mills etc.
 Buildings of Special Types
Special type buildings may be a combination of the three types discussed
above. A special type building may be designed to accommodate a
particular process. Such buildings are inflexible. They become obsolete,
once the process changes.

Types of Building Construction:

An industrial building may have one of the following constructions:

(a) Wood Frame Construction:

Such a building generally is not more than two storeys in height. Floors take
lighter loads only. It is highly flammable construction, therefore it is used
where fire hazards are rare and are not a serious drawback. Such a building
depreciates fast and thus has relatively shorter life. High insurance rates are
associated with such construction.
(b) Brick Construction:
Side walls and interior fire walls (i.e., the walls which separate sections of the
building to prevent fire spread) are made up of bricks. Floor beams and roof
supports resting on the walls are pilastered. It lasts longer than wood construction
and facilitates making changes, if any.

(c) Slow Burning Mill Construction:

It is plank-on-timber building with load bearing brick siding. Owing to heavy
wood members being used, the construction is fire-resistant because the
members, i.e., pillars, etc., are slow to burn and even after getting partially
charred, support the building (i.e., floors etc.). Such a factory building can take
moderate floor loads but involves high maintenance costs, high noise and
vibration transmission and light and ventilation restricted by the load bearing
walls. However, electrical, plumbing and other plant utilities can be altered with
ease.
(d) Steel Frame Construction:
It makes use of steel girders, columns and trusses. Space between the
columns is filled by bricks, etc. Such a construction involves a low
insurance rate and facilitates making changes in the building.

(e) Reinforced Concrete Construction:

This is fire-proof construction. All structural members are made up of
reinforced concrete, masonry or steel encased in concrete. It is a very
good type of construction for multi-storey buildings. Such construction
provides heavy floor loading characteristics and involves low
maintenance costs. Of course the initial cost of construction is high.
Changes in buildings are costly and difficult to make.

(f) Precast Concrete Construction:

It is very speedy and economical. Sections are precast either at vendor’s
end or on the ground itself, cured (i.e., set) and then tilted vertically up
by cranes to form the wall, roof and floor, etc.
Materials Required for Building Construction:

For floors:
1. Concrete: It is cheap and serviceable; is very commonly used.
2. Wood blocks laid on concrete.
3. Vinyl-asbestos tiles laid on concrete.
4. Grease resistant asphalt tile.

For Walls:
1. Cement.
2. Brick.
3. Tiles.
4. Concrete.
5. Wood.
6. Insulated metal panels.
7. Asbestos cement panels.
A combination of brick and cement is very popular.
For Roofs:

1. Steel trusses
2. Iron, brick and cement construction (flat roofs).
3. Wood construction etc.
 TRUSSES

A truss is essentially a triangulated

system of straight interconnected
structural elements. The most
common use of trusses is in buildings,
where support to roofs, the floors and
internal loading such as services and
suspended ceilings, are readily
provided. The main reasons for using
trusses are:
 Long span

 Lightweight

 Reduced deflection (compared to

plain members)
 Opportunity to support considerable
loads
 USES OF TRUSS IN
BUILDING
Trusses are used in a broad range of buildings, mainly where there is a
requirement for very long spans, such as in airport terminals, aircraft
hangers, sports stadia roofs, auditoriums and other leisure. Trusses are also
used to carry heavy loads and are sometimes used as transfer structures.
This article focuses on typical single storey industrial building, where trusses
are widely used to serve two main functions:
• To carry the roof load
• To provide horizontal stability.
• The members of trusses are made
of either rolled steel sections or
built-up sections depending upon
the span length, intensity of
loading, etc. Rolled steel angles,
tee sections, hollow circular and
rectangular structural tubes are
used in the case of roof trusses in
industrial buildings
• In long span roof trusses and short
span bridges heavier rolled steel
sections, such as channels, I sections
are used
• Members built-up using I sections,
channels, angles and plates are
used in the case of long span
bridge trusses
 USEOF TRUSSES IN BUILDING
 In the first case the lateral stability
of the structure is provided by a
series of portal trusses; the
connections between the truss
and the columns provide
resistance to a global bending
moment. Loads are applied to
the portal structure by purlins and
side rails
 In the second case, (right) each
truss and the two columns
between which it spans,
constitute a simple structure; the
connection between the truss and
a column does not resist the
global bending moment, and the
two column bases are pinned.
Longitudinal stability is also
provided by a wind girder in the
roof and vertical bracing in the
elevations.
 TYPES OF TRUSSES

Trusses comprise assemblies of tension and compression elements. Under gravity

loads, the top and bottom chords of the truss provide the compression and tension
resistance to overall bending, and the bracing resists the shear forces. A wide range
of truss forms can be created. Each can vary in overall geometry and in the choice
of the individual elements. Some of the commonly used types are shown below

Pratt truss ('N' truss)

• Pratt trusses are commonly used in long span buildings ranging from 20 to 100 m in
span. In a conventional Pratt truss, diagonal members are in tension for gravity
loads. This type of truss is used where gravity loads are predominant .
• An alternative Pratt truss is shown where the diagonal members are in tension for
uplift loads. This type of truss is used where uplift loads are predominant, which
may be the case in open buildings such as aircraft hangers.
It is possible to add secondary members in Pratt truss to:
• Create intermediate support points for applied loads
• Limit the buckling length of members in compression (although in a 2D truss,
the buckling length is only modified in one axis).
 NORTH LIGHT ROOF
TRUSS
 When the floor span exceeds 15m, it is
generally more economical to change
from a simple truss arrangement to one
employing wide span lattice girders
which support trusses at right angles.
 In order to light up the space
satisfactorily, roof lighting has to replace
or supplement, side lighting provision
must also be made for ventilation form
the roof.
 One of the oldest and economical
methods of covering large areas is the
North Light and Lattice girder.
 This roof consists of a series of trusses fixed
to girders. The short vertical side of the
truss is glazed so that when the roof is
used in the Northern Hemisphere, the
glazed portion faces North for the best
light.
 It can be used for spans from 20-30m.
 Used for industrial buildings, drawing
rooms etc.
 LATICE GIRDERS

 A lattice girder is a type of girder

with a criss-crossed web design,
such as in gardening lattices,
between the two edges of
the girder.
 The diagonal lines of steel give
support in all directions, helping
to
prevent the girder, which is one
of
the main support elements in a
bridge design, from bending.
 Often seen on older bridges or
buildings, lattice girders are also
widely used in mining tunnels for
roof support during excavations
and can be erected quickly.
 Lattice girders are not used so
much in building or bridges
anymore as they have been
replaced by solid steel plate
girders
Trusses consume a lot less material compared to beams to span the same length
and transfer moderate to heavy loads. However, the labour requirement for
fabrication and erection of trusses is higher and hence the relative economy is
dictated by different factors. In India these considerations are likely to favor the
trusses even more because of the lower labour cost. In order to fully utilize the
economy of the trusses the designers should ascertain the following:
 Method of fabrication and erection to be followed, facility for shop fabrication
available, transportation restrictions, field assembly facilities.
 Preferred practices and past experience.
 Availability of materials and sections to be used in fabrication.
 Erection technique to be followed and erection stresses.
 Method of connection preferred by the contractor and client (bolting, welding or
riveting).
 Choice of as rolled or fabricated sections.
 Simple design with maximum repetition and minimum inventory of material.
 PORTAL FRAME

 Portal frames are a type of

structural frame, that, in their
simplest form, are characterised by
a beam (or rafter) supported at
either end by columns, however, the
joints between the beam and
columns are 'rigid' so that the
bending moment in the beam is
transferred to the columns.
Portal frames are made in a variety of shapes and sizes. They are usually
made from steel, but can also be made from concrete or timber. The
portal structure is designed in such a way that it has no intermediate
columns, as a result large open areas can easily be created within the
structure.

Portal Frames are generally used for single storey construction

which require a large unobstructed floor space ie
Shopping
Factories Warehouses
Centres
 ADVANNTAGE AND DISADVANTAGE OF
PORTAL FRAME

Advantages
 Speed and ease of erection

 Building can be quickly closed in and made water tight.

 Framework prefabricated in a workshop and not affected by weather.

 Site works such as drainage, roads etc can be carried out until framework is
ready for erection.
 No weather hold up during erecting the framework.

 Connected together in factories by welding and site connections should be

bolted.
Disadvantages
 Although steel is incombustible it has a poor resistance to fire as it bends easily
when hot.
 Subject to corrosion
 PORTAL FRAME

 A high percentage of roofs are covered

with composite profile metal sheets with a
coloured external skin.
 These composite sheets have approximately
50mm of insulation sandwiched between two
thin metal sheets or aluminium sheets. Coated
steel is lowest in cost but limited in life due to
the durability of the finish. Aluminium develops
its own protective film. Profile sheets are quick
to erect, dismantle and repair.
 Galvanised steel purlins span between the
steel rafters.

 Wall panels
 RIDGE JOINT FOR PORTAL
FRAME

 Shown here is a ridge joint or apex

joint.

 It is Important that this joint is strong

hence the use of wedge shaped
pieces called gusset pieces to
strengthen and increase the bolt
area.
KNEE JOINT FOR PORTAL FRAME

 Again the knee joint must

be strong to support the
roof loads and prevent
bending.

 Gusset pieces will be used

to increase strength, give
greater bolt area and
prevent deflection under
load
 DIAGONAL BRACING
FOR PORTAL FRAME

 With all types of frameworks we must

think on stability ie movement. To
help strengthen the framework and
prevent movement diagonal
bracing will be used
 CLADDING
RAILS FOR
PORTAL
FRAME
 This slide shows the
cladding rails for
attaching the
external metal
cladding panels to.
 These rails can be
fixed horizontal or
vertical depending
on the way the
cladding panels
are fixed
TIE CABLES FOR
PORTAL FRAME

 These wire and

tubular ties are
used to prevent
sagging of the
cladding rails
which can add
considerable force
unto the joints of
the external
cladding.
 EXTERNAL WALL DETAIL

 Here we see the finish of the

external cladding panels with the
lower level facing brickwork.
 The blockwork behind
creates a protective wall or
firewall.