DATA

PRESENTATION
Methods of Data Presentation
One of the most important aspects in any statistical
investigation is the manner by which the researcher
presents the data.

Various Modes of Data Presentation

I. Textual
II. Tabular
III. Graphical Displays
I. Textual Presentation
– the data are presented in the form of texts, phrases
or paragraphs.
- common among newspaper reports depicting
specifically the salient or important findings.

Example: The Philippine Stock Exchange composite

index lost 7.19 points to 2,099.12 after trading between
2,095.30 and 2,108.47. Volume was 1.29 billion shares
worth 903.15 million pesos (16.7 million dollars). The
broader all share index gained 5.21 points to 1,221.34.
(From: Freeman dated March 17, 2005)
II. The Tabular Display
– a more reliable and effective way of
showing relationships or comparisons
of data through the use of tables.

- the tables must be accompanied by

a short narrative explanation to make
the facts clearer and more
understandable.
Example: The following newspaper report
presents a tabular data presentation .
Country Peso
United States 50.7890
Japan 0.4140
United Kingdom 72.5267
Hongkong 6.5116
Switzerland 28.7382
Canada 32.9756
Singapore 28.7382
III. The Graphical Display

the most effective way of presenting

data through the use of statistical graph.

 can easily attract the attention as well

as the interest of the reader.
Types of Graph
I. Bar Graph – uses rectangular bars the
length of which represents the quantity
or frequency of each type or category.
II. Multiple Bar Graph – useful when the
researcher wants to compare figures on two
or more different occurrence.
- a legend is especially helpful in guiding the
viewer in analyzing the data.
III. Pie Chart – used to present quantities
that make up a whole.
- constructed using percents and the slices
of the pie are drawn in proportion to the
different values of each class, item, group or
category.
 IV. Line Chart – useful in showing
trends over a period of time.
Data
Organization
Tables and graphs can be most useful in
describing data.

There are several ways of arranging and

organizing data.
Data in its original form and structure are
called raw data.

 Raw data may be organized by

constructing either an ungrouped or
a grouped distribution.
 Example 1: Ages of Persons with Diabetes (n = 35)

48 41 57 83 41 55 59
61 38 48 79 75 77 7
54 23 47 56 79 68 61
64 45 53 82 68 38 70
10 60 83 76 21 65 47

It is very difficult to see at a glance the value that occurs

most frequently. There is no “visually” clear indication of a
central tendency. This is the reason why researchers find
ways to organize the data systematically.
Methods by which data can be arranged in
an orderly and understandable form:

1. Listing the values in an array.

An array is an arrangement from highest
to lowest or from lowest to highest. It is
usually helpful to put the raw data in an
array because it is easy to identify the
extreme values or the values where the
scores most cluster.
The array for the data in Example 1:

83 77 68 60 54 47 38
83 76 65 59 53 45 23
82 75 64 57 48 41 21
79 70 61 56 48 41 10
79 68 61 55 47 38 7
2. Constructing an ungrouped frequency
distribution.
Ungrouped data are data that are
not organized, or if arranged, could
only from highest to lowest or lowest
to highest and the frequency of
occurrence of each score is
indicated, also called single- value
grouping.
 A frequency distribution table is a
table which shows the data
arranged into different classes(or
categories) and the number of
cases(or frequencies) which fall
into each class.
 Sample of a Frequency Distribution
Table for Ungrouped Data
Table 1: Frequency Distribution for the Ages of 50 Students Enrolled in Statistics
Try This!
 Table 1: The following are the measurements of height in inches
of 20 randomly selected six-year old girls.

44 44 47 46 38
42 46 41 50 43
40 51 48 45 41
46 48 47 47 43
Table 2: Ungrouped frequency distribution of
heights of six-year old girls (n = 20)
Height (in) Frequency (f) Height (in) Frequency (f)

38 1 45 1
39 0 46 3
40 1 47 3
41 2 48 2
42 1 49 0
43 2 50 1
44 2 51 1
 3. Stem-and-leaf plot
 Stem-and-leaf Plot is a table which sorts
data according to a certain pattern. It
involves separating a number into two
parts. In a two-digit number, the stem
consists of the first digit, and the leaf consists
of the second digit. While in a three-digit
number, the stem consists of the first two
digits, and the leaf consists of the last digit.
In a one digit number, the stem is zero.
Example. You are asked to present the performance
of your section in the Statistics test. The following
are the test scores of your class:

34 42 20 50 17 9 34 43
50 18 35 43 50 23 23 35
37 38 38 39 39 38 38 39
24 29 25 26 28 27 44 44
49 48 46 45 45 46 45 46
 Solution
First, arrange the data in order for you to identify
the important characteristics. This can be done in
two ways: rearranging from lowest to highest or
using the stem-and-leaf plot.
Below is the rearrangement of data from lowest to highest:
9 23 28 35 38 43 45 48
17 24 29 37 39 43 45 49
18 25 34 38 39 44 46 50
20 26 34 38 39 44 46 50
With the rearranged data,
pertinent data worth
mentioning can be easily
recognized.
Below is the stem-and-leaf plot of the
ungrouped data given in the example.
Utilizing the stem-and-leaf plot,
we can readily see the order of
the data. Thus, we can say that
the top ten got scores 50, 50, 50,
49, 48, 46, 46, 46,45, and 45 and
the ten lowest scores are 9, 17, 18,
20, 23,23,24,25,26, and 27.
3. Constructing a grouped frequency
distribution.
In a grouped frequency distribution,
the data are grouped into categories
or classes (class intervals).
The procedure of organizing data
into groups is called a Frequency
Distribution Table (FDT)
Example: The following presents a frequency
distribution table of the scores of fifteen Behavioral
Statistics Graduate Students.
Scores Frequency
20 – 29 5
30 – 39 4
40 – 49 3
50 – 59 2
60 – 69 1__
15
 Components of a Frequency Distribution
Table
I. Class Interval – these are the numbers defining
the class.
- consist of the end numbers called the class
limits namely the lower limit and upper limit.
- most researchers agree that the number of class
intervals that can be accommodated ranges
from 5 – 20
II. Class Frequency (f) – shows the number of
observations falling in the class.
III. Class Boundaries – these are the so called
“true class limits”
classified as:
- Lower Class Boundary (LCB) - is defined as the
middle value of the lower class limits of the class
and the upper class limit of the preceding class.

- Upper Class Boundary - is defined as the

middle value between the upper class limit of the
class and the lower limit of the next class.
 IV. Class Size or class width ( i )– the
difference between two consecutive upper
limits or two consecutive lower limits.
 V. Class Mark (CM) – midpoint or the middle
value of a class interval.
 VI. Cumulative frequency – shows the
accumulated frequencies of successive
classes.
Cumulative percentage distribution – obtained
by dividing the cumulative frequency by n and
then multiplying by 100.
Sample of a Frequency Distribution Table for Grouped Data
Table 1. Grouped frequency distribution of ages of persons
with diabetes (n = 35)
Class Interval Frequency Cumulative Cumulative Percentage
Frequency Distribution
7 - 13 2 2 5.71
14 – 20 0 2 5.71
21 – 27 2 4 11.43
28 – 34 0 4 11.43
35 – 41 4 8 22.86
42 – 48 5 13 37.14
49 – 55 3 16 45.71
56 - 62 6 22 62.86
63 - 69 4 26 74.29
70 - 76 3 29 82.86
77 - 83 6 35 100.00
 Guidelines For Frequency Tables
1. Be sure that the classes are mutually
exclusive.
2. Include all classes, even if the frequency is
zero.
3. Try to use the same width for all classes.
4. Select convenient numbers for class limits.
5. Use between 5 and 20 classes.
6. The sum of the class frequencies must
equal the number of original data values.
Constructing A Frequency Table
1. Decide on the number of classes .
2. Determine the class width by dividing
the range by the number of classes
(range = highest score - lowest score)
and round up.
range
class width ≈ round up of --------------------
number of classes
3. Select for the first lower limit either the lowest
score or a convenient value slightly less than the
lowest score.
4. Add the class width to the starting point to get
the second lower class limit, add the width to the
second lower limit to get the third, and so on.
5. List the lower class limits in a vertical column
and enter the upper class limits.
6. Represent each score by a tally mark in the
appropriate class. Total tally marks to find the
total frequency for each class.
The following are the suggested steps in
constructing a Frequency Distribution Table.
1. Determine the number of classes. For first
approximation, it is suggested to use the
Sturge’s Approximation Formula.
K = 1 + 3.322 log n
where K = approximate number of classes
n = number of cases
2. Determine the range R, where
R = maximum value – minimum value
3. Determine the approximate class size C
using the formula C = R / K. It is usually
convenient to round off C to a nearest
whole number

4. Determine the lowest class interval (or the

first class). This class should include the
minimum value in the data set. For
uniformity, let us agree that for our
purposes, the lower limit of the class interval
should start at the minimum value.
5. Determine all class limits by adding
the class size C to the limits of the
previous class.

6. Tally the scores / observations falling

in each class.
Homework
Gather data on the ages of your
classmates’ fathers, include your own.
Construct a frequency distribution table
for the data gathered using grouped and
ungrouped data. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of using
ungrouped frequency distribution table?
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of using grouped
frequency distribution table?