Describing Research Activities

Phenomenology
Case Studies
Field Studies
Archival Study
Qualitative Research
Nonexperimental approaches are used in
situations in which an experiment is not practical
or desirable. They are also used to study
behaviors in natural settings to explore unique or
rare occurrences or to sample personal
information.
Research is high in internal validity if we can
demonstrate with certainty that the changes in
behavior observed across treatment conditions
were actually caused by differences in treatments.

External validity is generalizability or

applicability to people and situations outside the
research setting.
 Two Major Dimensions Research can be Describe

1. The degree of Manipulation of Antecedent

Conditions

Experiments are typically high in degree of

manipulation; nonexperiments are usually low.

Describing Research Activities

 Two Major Dimensions Research can be Describe

2. The degree of Imposition of Units is an

equally important dimension. This term refers to
the extent to which the researcher constraints, or
limits, the responses a subject may contribute to
the data.

Describing Research Activities

 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

1. Phenomenology is the description of an

individual’s immediate experience. Rather than
looking at behaviors and events that are external
to us, we begin with personal experience as a
source of data. It falls near the low-low end.

Antecedents are not manipulated, and data may

consist of any immediate experience; no
constraints are imposed.
Describing Research Activities
 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

1. Phenomenology cannot be used to

understand the causes of behavior. Like other
nonexperimental designs, it describes, but cannot
explain, behavior.

Describing Research Activities

 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

2. Case Studies involves no manipulation of

antecedent conditions. It is used to study
individuals. It is a descriptive record of a single
individual’s experiences, or behaviors, or both ,
kept by an outside observer.

There are few restrictions on the type of data to

be included in a case study. Many case studies
would be expected to fall in the low-low portion.
Describing Research Activities
 Kazdin (2003) has argued that case studies serve
Five Major Purposes:

First, we may use a case study to make

inferences about the impact of life events, the
origin of disorders, or developmental processes.

Second, as we understand the impact of such

events more fully, we may be able to devise more
appropriate treatment techniques, as well as
preventive measures.

Case Studies
 Kazdin (2003) has argued that case studies serve
Five Major Purposes:

Third, the case study is a perfect forum for

investigating unique cases or rare problems.

Fourth, case studies can provide evidence that

casts doubt on theories or generally accepted
practices.

Fifth, case studies are sometimes a dramatic way

to illustrate abstract concepts.
Case Studies
Deviant Case Analysis

Cases of deviant and normal individuals are

compared for significant differences. These
differences may have important implications for
the etiology, or origin, of the psychopathology in
question.

Case Studies
Retrospective Data are data collected on the
present that are based on recollections of past
events.

Case Studies
 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

3. Field studies are nonexperimental approaches

used in the field or in real-life settings.

Antecedent conditions are not manipulated in field

studies, but the degree of constraint on
responses varies considerably from study to
study.

Describing Research Activities

Naturalistic Observation Studies is the
technique of observing behaviors as they occur
spontaneously in natural settings. This approach
has been used extensively in animal behavior
research, called ethology, to study behavior in the
wild as well as in captivity.

Field studies
In systematic observation, the researcher uses a
prearranged strategy for recording observations
in which each observation is recorded using
specific rules or guidelines so that observations
are more objective.

Field studies
Tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or
responses when they are aware of an observer’s
presence, is known as reactivity.

Observers should remain as unobtrusive

(inconspicuous) as possible when they conduct
naturalistic observations.

Field studies
Participant-Observer Studies

Here the researcher actually becomes part of the

group being studied. The researcher may interact
with subjects as well as observe them to obtain
information.

Field studies
Note that a field study is not to be confused with a
field experiment. A field experiment is a true
experiment that in conducted outside the
laboratory.

Field studies
 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

4. Archival Study is a descriptive research

method in which already existing records are
reexamined for a new purpose.

Describing Research Activities

 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

5. Qualitative Research relies on words rather

than numbers for the data being collected; it
focuses on self-reports, personal narratives and
expression of ideas, memories, feelings and
thought.

Describing Research Activities

A paradigm is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs,
methods and procedures that are generally
accepted within a particular discipline at a certain
point in time.

Qualitative Research
 Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by
Psychologists

5. Qualitative Research is used to study

phenomena that are contextual, meaning they
cannot be understood without the context in
which they appear. These phenomena deserve to
be studied within a rich background or unique
environment.

Describing Research Activities

Contemporary phenomenology, also called
empirical phenomenology, might rely on the
researcher’s own experiences or on experiential
data provided by other sources.

Qualitative Research