The main difference between a population and sample has to do with

how observations are assigned to the data set.A population includes

all of the elements from a set of data.A sample consists one or more
observations drawn from the population.Depending on the sampling
method, a sample can have fewer observations than the population,
the same number of observations, or more observations. More than
one sample can be derived from the same population.
 It is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is
representative of the entire population. The sample must have
sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis.
 1. Simple Random Sampling
 2. Systematic Sampling
 3. Stratified Sampling
 4. Clustered Sampling
a. One-Stage Sampling
b. Two-Stage Sampling
In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an equal chance, or probability, of
being selected.
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame.
The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size. If you
need a sample size n from a population of size x, you should select
every x/nth individual for the sample.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random

sampling, and it is easy to administer. However, it may also lead to
bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in the order of the
individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling technique
coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern.
In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups (or strata)
who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we might
reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary between the
different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation from all the
subgroups.

Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and representativeness of

the results by reducing sampling bias. However, it requires knowledge
of the appropriate characteristics of the sampling frame (the details of
which are not always available), and it can be difficult to decide which
characteristic(s) to stratify by.
In clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the
sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is divided into
subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly selected to be
included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined, for
example individual GP practices or towns could be identified as
clusters.
Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random sampling,
especially where a study takes place over a wide geographical region.

Disadvantages include an increased risk of bias, if the chosen clusters

are not representative of the population, resulting in an increased
sampling error.
 A. single-stage cluster sampling, all members of the chosen clusters
are then included in the study.

 B. In two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each

cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion.
 1. Convenience Sampling
 2. Quota Sampling
 3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling
 4. Snowball Sampling
 This is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because participants
are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful
results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias,
because those who volunteer to take part may be different from those
who choose not to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be
representative of other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note:
volunteer bias is a risk of all non-probability sampling methods.
This method of sampling is often used by market researchers.
Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a specified type to
attempt to recruit.

 Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively straightforward and

potentially representative, the chosen sample may not be
representative of other characteristics that weren’t considered (a
consequence of the non-random nature of sampling).
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies
on the judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to
participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative”
sample to suit their needs, or specifically approach individuals with
certain characteristics. This approach is often used by the media when
canvassing the public for opinions and in qualitative research.
Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and cost-
effective to perform whilst resulting in a range of responses
(particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to
volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the
researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not
necessarily be representative.
is method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating
hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further
subjects known to them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling
snowball.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is difficult

to identify. However, by selecting friends and acquaintances of
subjects already investigated, there is a significant risk of selection
bias (choosing a large number of people with similar characteristics
or views to the initial individual identified).
Research locale is a part of methodology wherein it dicusses the place
or setting of the study. It describes in brief the place where the study is
conducted. Only important features which have the bearing on the
present study are included. This is also where the target population for
the study is being shown.
 1. Laboratory Studies
 2. Field Studies
- designed to be more highly controlled in relation to both the
environment in which the study is conducted and the control of
extraneous and and intervening variables.
 Example: Physiological laboratory experiments, chemistry and
physics experiment, psychological and microbiological experiments,
etc. In laboratory setting, experiments are designed to control the
possibility of extraneous variables (ex. environmental variables and
physiological variables) influencing the effect of the independent
variable on the dependent variable.
 Field Studies occur somewhere other than in a controlled laboratory
setting. They occur in a naturals settings and use a variety of methods
such as field experiments, interviews in home or office, etc.
 Examples: Flexible user tests in the field, which combine usability
testing with adaptive interviews. Interviewing people about their
tasks and challenges gives you very rich information. In an adaptive
interview, you refine the questions you ask as you learn.
 Customer visits can help you better understand usability issues that
arise in particular industry or business contexts or those that appear
at a certain scale.
 Direction observation is useful for conducting design research into
user processes, for instance to help create natural task flows for
subsequent paper prototypes. Direct observation is also great for
learning user vocabulary, understanding businesses’ interaction with
customers, and discovering common workarounds — for example by
listening in on support calls, watching people moving through
amusement parks, or observing sales staff and customers in stores.
 Ethnographic research situates you in the users’ context as a member
of the group. Group research allows you to gain insight into mental
models and social situations that can help products and services fit
into people’s lives. This type of research is particularly helpful when
your target audience lives in a culture different from yours.
 Contextual inquiry is a method that structures and combines many of
these field-study activities.
-Tests are the tools of measurement and it guides the researcher in
data collection and also in evaluation. Tools may vary in complexity,
interpretation, design and administration. Each tool is suitable for the
collection of certain type of information. One has to select from the
available tools those which will provide data he seeks for testing
hypothesis. It may happen that existing research tools do not suit the
purpose in some situation, so researcher should modify them or
construct his own. Different tools used for data collection may be;
 1. Questionnaires
 2. Interviews
 3. Schedules
 4. Observation Techniques
 5. Rating Scales
-It is list of questions related to one topic. It may be defined as; “A questionnaire is a
systematic compilation of questions that are submitted to a sampling of population
from which information is desired.” Barr, Davis & Johnson
 “In general, the word questionnaire refers to a device for securing answers to
questions by using a form which the respondent fills in himself.” W. J. Goode & K.
Hall
 The questionnaire is probably most used and most abused of the data gathering
devices .It is easy to prepare and to administer.
 The questionnaire is a form prepared and distributed to secure responses to
certain questions. It is a device for securing answers to questions by using a form
which the respondent will fill by himself.
 It is a systematic compilation of questions. It is an important instrument being used
to gather information from widely scattered sources. Normally used where one
cannot see personally all of the people from whom he desires responses or where
there is no particular reason to see them personally.
1. It deals with an important or significant topic.
2. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its
covering letter.
3. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources
like books, reports and records.
4. It is as short as possible, only long enough to get the essential data..
5. It is attractive in appearance, nearly arranged and clearly duplicated
or printed.
6. Directions are clear and complete, important terms are clarified.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints or suggestions.
8. Questions are presented in a order from simple to complex.
9. Double negatives, adverbs and descriptive adjectives are avoided.
10. Double barreled questions or putting two questions in one
question are also avoided.
11. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
12. It is easy to tabulate, summarize and interpret.
1. it’s very economical.
2. It’s a time saving process.
3. It covers the research in wide area.
4. It’s very suitable for special type of responses.
5. It is most reliable in special cases.
1. Through this we get only limited responses.
2. Lack of personal contact.
3. Greater possibility of wrong answers.
4. Chances of receiving incomplete response are more.
5. Sometimes answers may be illegible.
6. It may be useless in many problems.
 Interview is a two way method which permits an exchange of ideas
and information.
 “Interviewing is fundamentally a process of social interaction.” W. J.
Goode & P.K. Hatt
 “The interview constitutes a social situation between two persons, the
psychological process involved requiring both individuals mutually
respond though the social research purpose of the interview call for
a varied response from the two parties concerned.” Vivien Palmar
 “The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a
person enters more or less imaginatively into the inner life of a
comparative stranger.” P.V. Young
 In an interview a rapport is established between the interviewer and
the interviewee. Not only is physical distance between them
annihilated, the social and cultural barrier is also removed; and a free
mutual flow of ideas to and fro takes place. Both create their
respective impression upon each other. The interview brings them
both on the same level and an emotional attachment supervenes
between them.
 In an interview all formalities are laid down and the gate is opened
for delivering into the intellectuals, emotional and subconscious
stirrings of the interviewee. Thus here the ‘depth’ of subject (man) is
gone to the very bottom of his emotional pool and may check his
truthfulness of responses.
Questionnaire Method
1. Data is gathered indirectly.
2. No face to face contact between two.
3. Interviewer should have the general knowledge of the topic.
4. Interviewee will hesitate to write it.
5. We get written information only.
Interview Method
1. Data is gathered directly.
2. There is face to face contact between interviewer and interviewee.
3. Skillful interviewer is needed.
4. Some confidential information can also be obtained.
5. We get written and oral both type of information.
 1. The interviewer can probe into casual factors, determine attitudes,
discover the origin of problem.
 2. Its appropriate to deal with young children and illiterates person.
 3. It can make cross questioning possible.
 4. It helps the investigator to gain an impression of the person concerned.
 5. It can deal with delicate, confidential and even intimate topics.
 6. It has flexibility.
 7. Sincerity, frankness, truthfulness and insight of the interviewee can be
better judged through cross questioning.
 8. It gives no chance for respondent to modify his earlier answer.
 9. It is applicable in survey method, but it is also applicable in historical,
experimental, case studies and clinical studies.
 1. Direct research.
 2. Deep research
 3. Knowledge of past and future.
 4. Knowledge of special features.
 5. Mutual encouragement is possible.
 6. Supra-observation is possible.
 7. Knowledge of historical and emotional causes. 8
 . Examination of known data.
 1. May provides misleading information.
 2. Defects due to interviewee(low level of intelligence or may be
emotionally unbalanced)
 3. Result may be affected due to prejudices of interviewer.
 4. Result may be affected due to the difference in the mental outlook
of interviewee and interviewer.
 5. One sided and incomplete research.
 6. Art rather than science.