University of Buraimi

Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering

Environmental Engineering

Chapter 4: Water Treatment

3. Coagulation and Flocculation
4. Sedimentation
5. Infiltration
6. Disinfection

Dr. Mohammed Seyam

4.3 Coagulation and Flocculation
 1. Definition of CoagulationandFlocculation
 Coagulation and flocculation are two consecutive process (i.e. occur
one after the other) that are used to remove colloidal particles from
water.

 Colloids are very small particles (turbidity and color causing articles
that can not be removed neither by
sedimentation (due to their light weight) nor by filtration.
 Examples of colloids: soil particles, bacteria, viruses and color causing
materials. These colloids are stable in solution and theoretically will
stay there for ever unless an action is done to destabilize them.
Coagulation and flocculation are the two processes used for this
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destabilization.
2.ColloidalStability

 Colloids are very Small particles (0.01 to 1 m)

 Most naturally occurring particles in water are negatively charged. Since
like charges repel, these small particles, or colloids, will remain suspended
almost indefinitely.

 A fixed layer of positive ions (counterions) is attracted to the negatively

charged colloids by electrostatic attraction. This layer is called stern layer or
fixed layer. This layer is surrounded by a movable diffuse layer of counterions
but with a lower concentration than that in the fixed layer. The two layers
form what is called the double layer theory.

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5
 Turbidity

SuspendedSolids Colloidal
Light,electricallycharged
Settleable Non‐set leable particles
Heavyparticles UnchargedLightparticles
Coagulation
Coagulation Coagulation Converted to
Notaffected Notaffected UnchargedLightparticles

Flocculation Flocculation
Flocculation Converted to
Notaffected Converted to
Heavyparticles Heavyparticles

Sedimentation Sedimentation Sedimentation

Around 60%Settle Around 60%Settle Around 60%Settle

Filtration Filtration Filtration

Around 35% filtered Around 35% filtered Around 35% filtered

Turbidityremoval flowchart from surfacewater

6
 Thesurface betweenthe two layers is called the shear surface.When
the colloid moves the fixed layermoves withit.
 Thepositive charge attachedto the colloid in the sternlayeris not
enough to neutralize the negative charge of the colloid. So thereis a
netelectricalpotentialaround the colloid as shown in theFigure3.1.
 TheElectricalpotential at the shear surface is called the Zetapotential
which is a measure of the repulsiveforce of the colloid to other colloids
having the samecharge.

7
Figure3.1:
Double layerchargesand
Zetapotential around acolloid

8
3. Coagulation
1. Coagulants:
 Coagulants are chemicals that are added to water to destabilize colloids.
The most common coagulants are given in the table below:

Type of coagulant formula most common N

form
aluminum sulfate Al2 (SO4)3. 14-18 H2O lumps or powder acidic

Sodium aluminate NaAlO2 or Na2Al2O4 Powder alkaline

Poly-aluminiumchloride Aln(OH)mCl3n-m Solution or powder acidic

Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3.9H2O Small crystals acidic

Ferris chloride FeCl3. 6H2O Lumps or solution acidic

Ferrous sulfate FeSO4. 7H2O Small crystals acidic

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2.Coagulation chemistry:

IfAlum is used the following reactions occur:

• Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al3++ 3SO42‐+14H2O
• 2Al3+ + colloids neutralize surfacecharge
• 2Al3+ +6HCO 3‐  2Al(OH)3(s) +6CO 2
• If insufficient bicarbonate is available:
Al2(SO4)314H2O  2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 +14H2O
• Optimum pH: 5.5 to6.5
• Operating pH: 5 to8

• Since the coagulation reaction results in the decrease of the pH, so

• It is a common practice to add lime (Ca(OH)2) together with the coagulant
to increase the pH consequently countering the effectof pH decrease.

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3.Factors affectingCoagulation
The two main factors affecting the coagulation process are:
‐ Coagulant dosage
‐ pH of thewater
The optimum dosage and optimum pH are determined by
laboratory test called the JarTest.the Jartest consists of six
beakers filled with the water to be treated and then each is
mixed and flocculated uniformly.Atest is often conducted by
first dosing each jar with the same value of coagulant and
varying the pH of each jar.The test can then be repeated by
holding the pH constant and varying the coagulant dosage.
Figure(3.4)illustrates the jartest.
Figure(3.5)illustrates the effectof dosage and pH on the coagulation process.

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Figure(3.4)TheJarTest 16
Figure3.5:
Effectof coagulant dosage and pH on the coagulationprocess 17
Design of Coagulationtank:
A.As illustrated previously, coagulation requires the addition of a chemical
called “ coagulant. The coagulant should be very well mixed with water to
produce homogeneous mixture of the influent water and the coagulant to
achieve the bestcoagulationefficiency.

B.This mixing is achieved in a tank called Rapid mixer. Figures 3.6 and 3.7
illustrate the geometry of the rapid mixer. It usually has a square or circular
cross section to achieve best mixingefficiency.

C.The most common mixers used in the coagulation tank are mechanical
mixers.The most common types are :turbine, propeller, and paddlemixers.
Figure 3.8 illustrates thesetypes.

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Figure3.6: Rapidmixer

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Figure3.7: Rapidmixer

16
Figure3.8: types mechanicalrapidmixer

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D. Sizing the coagulations Rapid mixer tank:

i. Tank Volume:

V = Q*t
Where,
V = tank volume , m3 Q =
design flow , m3/S
t = detention time in the tank, S

The detention time in the rapid mixer is in the range of 20‐60

seconds. This short time is enough to achieve complete mixing of the
coagulant and to complete the coagulation process. The water depth
is usually taken as 1.5 times the width of the tank if it is square or
the diameter if it is a circular.

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ii. PowerRequirements:

P =µVG2
Where,
P = power transmitted to the water by the mixer,N.m/s(Watt)
V = tankvolume,m3
G = velocity gradient,S‐1
µ = dynamic viscosity ofwater,N.s/m2

The velocity gradient is defined as the relativevelocity between

two colloidal particles in water divided by the distance between them.
For example, if two particles are 1 cm apart and the relative velocity
between the is 10m/s,then

G = 10(mps)/0.01m = 1000mps/m = 1000S‐1

Typicalvalues of G in coagulation rapid mixing are given in the following
Table.

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 Typicaldesign values of the G for coagulation
Detention time (Seconds) G mps/m, or S‐1
20 1000
30 900
40 790
50 ormore 700
Example:
A rapid mixer is to be used for coagulation of surface water with high
turbidity. If the flow is 720 m3/h find the volume and dimensions of the
tank and the power requirements. Assume that the detention time is 20
seconds and G=1000 S‐1, µ = 1.518 X 10‐3 N.m/s2 at 5 oC.
Solution:
Q = 720 m3/h = 0.20
m3/s V = 30*0.2 = 6 m3
Assume the tank cross section is square ,then V =
W*W*1.5W=1.5 W3 6= 1.5W3 , W = 1.587 m, d= 1.5*1.587 =
2.38 m.

P=µVG2 = 1.518X10‐3X6X 10002 = 9522 Watt = 9.522 Kw

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4. Flocculation

1. Configurations of Flocculation tanks:

 The most common types of Flocculator are paddle and walking beam
Flocculator. Figures 3.9 through 3.16 illustrate these types.
 Another type of tanks combine between flocculation and
sedimentation in one tank and called solid contact Flocculator
Clarifier. See Figures 3.17 and 3.18.

 Figures 3.19 and 3.20 illustrate the layout of a water

treatment plant with coagulation, flocculation and

sedimentation tanks .

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Figure3.9:Baddel Flocculator, HorizontalShaft

22
Figure 3.10 : Horizontal-Shaft Paddle Flocculator, Axial flow pattern

23
Figure 3.11: Horizontal-Shaft Paddle Flocculator, Cross flow pattern

24
Figure 3.12: Horizontal-Shaft Paddle Flocculator, Cross flow pattern

25
Figure3.13:VerticalShaft BaddelFlocculator
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Figure 3.14: Vertical-Shaft Paddle Flocculator

27
Figure 3.15: Walking Beam-Shaft addle Flocculator
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Figure 3.16 : Walking Beam Flocculator
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Figure3.17a: Solids Contact FlocculatorClarifier

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Figure3.17b: Solids ContactFlocculatorClarifier

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Figure3.18: Solids ContactFlocculatorClarifier

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 SedimentationTank

Vertical shaftPaddle
Flocculationtank

Coagulation RapidMix

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igure3.19: Layoutof Coagulation Rapid mixer,flocculation and sedimentation Tanks
Figure3.20:
Layout of
Rapid mix,
flocculation
and
Clarification
Tanks

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4.4 Sedimentation

3
5
1. Definition of Sedimentation:
It is the process of removing solid particles heavier than water by
gravity force.

 Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be

removed using a sedimentation tank (also called clarifiers).
 Sedimentation is used in water treatment at the locations
indicated in Figures 1 through 4.

3
6
2. Applications of sedimentation in water treatment:

1. Plain settling ( or pre‐sedimentation) of river surface water .

2. In filtration treatment plants treating surface water to removes flocculated
solids. The sedimentation tank comes after the flocculation tank.
3. In Softening treatment plants treating hard water to removes flocculated
solids. The sedimentation tank comes after the flocculation tank.

4. In aeration treatment plant removing iron and manganese from ground

water

3
7
Geometry of sedimentation tanks:

 Sedimentation tanks are either rectangular or circular

tanks.

 Figures show typical sedimentation tanks used in

water treatment.

3
8
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
3
9
Rectangular sedimentation Tank 40
Circular sedimentation Tank 11
Circular sedimentation Tank 12
Circular sedimentation Tank
Solid contact type 13
Circular sedimentation Tank
Solid contact type
44
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
sludge collection system
45
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
sludge collection system
46
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
sludge collection system
17
Rectangular sedimentation Tank
sludge collection system
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3. Theoretical background on Sedimentation

3.1 Type of particles :

1) Discrete / individual particle

- Size, velocity constant during the settling

- Density 2,000 – 2,200 kg/m3

2) Flocculent particles

- Size, velocity fluctuates during the settling

- Particles flocculate and grow bigger in size

- Density 1,030 – 1,070 kg/m3

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3.2 Three classes of particles settling :

Type 1

i) Particles settle discretely at a constant velocity

ii) Settle as individual particles and do not flocculate.

iii) E.g. : Sand, grit material

iv) Occurs during :

i) Pre‐sedimentation for sand removal

ii) Settling of sand during rapid sand filter cleaning

v) Concentration : very low

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Type 2

i) Flocculate during sedimentation

ii) Size constantly changing

iii) Settling velocity is changing

iv) Settling velocity increase with depth and extent of

flocculation.

v) Occurs during :

i) Alum or iron coagulation

vi) Concentration : low

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Type 3

i) Settle as mass and form a layer – “blanket

ii) Concentration high (greater than 1000 mg/L)

iii) Distinct clear zone and sludge zone are present.

iv) Occurs during :

i) Lime‐softening sedimentation

ii) Sludge thickeners in water treatment.

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4. Sedimentation theory

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4.5 Filtration
1. Definition of Filtration:
It is a solid –liquid separation process in which the liquid
passes through a porous medium to remove as much fine
suspended solids aspossible

2. Locations of filtration tanks in watertreatment:

Filtration tanks are used in all types of water treatment
plants except for disinfection treatment plants.

See Figures 5.1 through 5.3 illustrating the location of

filtration tanks.

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 River
Water

Screen

Pre‐Sedimentation
Sedimentation
Coagulation Flocculation

Filtration Disinfection Storage Distribution

Figure1:Filtration TreatmentPlant (River Water)

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 Screen

Surface
water
Sedimentation
Coagulation Flocculation

Filtration Disinfection Storage Distribution

Figure2 : Filtration TreatmentPlant

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Ground
Water Aeration Filtration
well

Storage Distribution
Disinfection

Figure3 :AerationTreatmentPlant
( iron and manganese removalplant)

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3. Need for filtration:

 Settling is not sufficient to remove all particles and flocs from water.
 Filtration Needed for fine particles not removed by sedimentation.
 Filters can also capture Giardia cysts, viruses, and asbestos fibers
 Typical overflow qualities from sedimentation tanks range from 1 to
10 NTU.
Filtration, usually rapid sand filtration, is then employed for
further “polishing”, i.e. to get the turbidity to lower than 0.5
NTU (as required by legislation).
Rapid sand filtration after prior sedimentation is the most common
configuration worldwide

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4. Types of filters used in water treatment:
Granular material filters are the most used types of filters in
water treatment. Usually sand, anthracite, and Garnet.

There are three types of granularfilters:

1. Single –medium filters:
one type of media is used: either sand or anthracite
2. Dual‐media filters: two types of media is used usually sand and
anthracite

3. Multimedia filters: three types of media are used usually sand ,

anthracite , and Garnet

Most famous filters in water treatment are Rapid Sand Filters.

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5. Geometry and components of Rapid SandFilter:

 Rapid sand filters are always rectangulartanks.

 Figures 5 to 10 show typical Rapid sand filters used in water

treatment.

 Main components of Rapid sandfilter are:

1.A concrete tank
2.Filter media
3.Under drainsystem
4.Backwash system: pressurized water and airlines
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Figure5 : Rapid sand filtercomponents

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Figure 6a:
Rapid sand filter components : with graveland
perforated pipes under drainsystem
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Figure6b:
Rapid sand filtercomponents : with graveland 12
perforatedpipes under drainsystem
Figure 7:
Rapid sand filter components : with graveland
perforated pipes under drainsystem
65
Figure8:
Rapid sandfilter components: with ducts under‐ drain system 66
Figure9:
Rapid sand filtercomponents: with nozzleunder‐ drainsystem 67
Figure 10:
Rapid sandfilterperforated
slab andnozzleunder‐drain
system

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Figure 5.11:
Nozzleused in Rapid sandfilter
under‐drain system

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6. Operation of Rapid SandFilter:

There are two modes of operation of Rapid sand

filter

 Filtration mode ( see Figure 12)

 Backwashing mode ( seeFigure 13 )

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 Filtration mode:
• Water flows downward througha bed of sand andgravel
• Particlesare capturedon andbetween sand grains
• Filteredwateris collectedinthe under drain,sent todisinfection

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctkOXtQnGro

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Backwash mode:
Sandis backwashedwhen
– It becomesclogged,or
– Turbidityof filteredwater getstoohigh

Duringbackwash,wateris pumped upwardsthroughthe sandbed

• Sand becomes “fluidized”,andparticles are flushed fromthesand

• Dirtybackwashwateris pumpedinto a settlingpond,andeither
– Recycledbackintoplant,or
– Disposed
• Backwashingcanconsume1% to5% ofa plant’sproduction
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3o16tAr5ZHY
Figure12: Rapid sand filterduring
filtration 22
Figure13: Rapid sand filter duringbackwashing
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9. Filter media properties

Figure14 : filter media graindistribution

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‐These filters use sand and crushed anthracite coal
on a graded gravel base.

‐Media layers are arranged in a course to fine gradation

in the direction of flow, which allows greater depth of
penetration of floc particles.

‐Multimedia filters are selected with specific gravities

so that moderate intermixing between media layers
occurs during backwashing.

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10. Filter media properties
The filter media is characterized by two main
parameters: the effective size and theuniformity
coefficient.
Effectivesizeof the filtermedia
The effective size of the media is the diameter
that 10% of the filter media is less than it size and
is denoted as d10.
Uniformity coefficientof the filtermedia

U  d 60
d10
U =Uniformitycoefficient
d60 = sieve size that passes 60% by weight
d10 = sieve size that passes 10% by weight
‐ d60 and d10 are found by sieve analysis of the
media to be used in thefilter.
‐Another important sieve sizeis d90 that is used
to calculatethe backwashrate. 77
 5.Filtration in waterTreatment

Figure 15:
Rapid sand medialayers 27
Figure 16 :
Rapid sand
medialayers

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Table5.1

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Table5.2

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Table5.3

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Figure5.17:
Head loss and effluentturbidity increase with time during filtration

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Figure 14: Head loss in rapid sand filterduring
filtrationcycle

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4.5 Disinfection

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1. Definition of Disinfection :
Disinfection is the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms.
2. Disinfection methods :
A. Chemical disinfection:
 Chlorination
 Ozonation

B. Non chemical disinfection:

 Heat
 Ultra Violet radiation (UV)

3. Microorganisms of concern include:

Microorganisms of concern include:
1. Viruses
2. Bacteria
3. Cryptosporidium oocysts
4. Giardia cysts
5. Protozoan
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 Indicator organisms are often used to assess the presence or absence of pathogens
 Common indicator organisms are coliforms‐E‐coli
4. Introduction on Chlorination

Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant because it is effective

at low concentrations, cheap and forms residual if applied in
sufficient dosage.

 The principal chlorine compounds used in water treatment are:

*Chlorine (Cl2),
*Sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl),
*Calcium hypochlorite [Ca(OCl)2], and
*chlorine dioxide (ClO2).

‐Chlorine (Cl2) can be used in gas or liquid form.

‐The Cl2 gas is liquefied by high pressure (5‐10 atm) to the liquid
form.

87
 Chemistry of Chlorine in water:
Chlorine gas reacts readily with water to form hypochlorous acid and
hydrochloric acid:
Cl2+H2O → HOCl + HCl
 The produced hypochlorous acid then dissociates to yield hypochlorite ion:
HOCl → H+ + OCl‐
The relative distribution of HOCl and OCl‐ is a function of pH and temperature
see (Fig 1). Both HOCl and OCl‐ are excellent disinfectants but HOCl is
more effective.
 Both HOCl & OCl‐ react with ammonia if exists in water to produce chloramines:

NH3 + HOCl → NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine)

NH2Cl + 2HOCl → NHCl2 + H2O (dichloramine)
NHCl2 + 3HOCl → NCl3 + H2O (Trichloramine)

Note: Chloramines are good disinfectants

Both HOCl & OCl‐ react with reducing compounds such as Fe+2, Mn+2, NO‐2 ,
and the chlorine will be reduced to the non effective chlorid ion Cl‐ .

88
Relative amount of HOCl and OCl‐ as a function of pH at 0o
and 20o. 89
Both HOCl & OCl‐ react with reducing natural organic maters
producing trihalomethanes (THMs) including:
*Chloroform (CHCl3) ,
*Bromoform (CHBr3),
* bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br),
*dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2).

The THMs are carcinogenic compounds and

their total concentration in drinking water should not be more than 0.1 mg/l.

THMs are one of the disinfection by products DBPs that should be

minimized or removed before supplying the water to the consumers.
Another dangerous DBPs is the halogenated acetic acids HAAs as it
may cause cancer.
THMs and HAAs can be minimized by removing the organic matter
before disinfection. THMs and HAAs can be removed from water by
GAC.
90
Break point chlorination :

‐As illustratedin the previous section, chlorine reacts with the substances
existing in water. Figure 2 shows the stages of these reactions.
‐On Fig 2, The chlorine dosage is presented on the x‐axis and the
residual chlorine is presented on the y‐axis.
‐When chlorine is added it reacts first with the reducing compounds
such as Fe+2, Mn+2, NO‐2 , and the chlorine will be reduced to the
none effective chloride ion Cl‐ (from zero to point A on the figure).
‐ When adding more chlorine it will react with NH3 to form chloramines as
shown in the chlorine chemistry ( from point A toB).
‐When adding more chlorine some chloramines are oxidized to nitrogen
gas and the chlorine is reduced to the none effective Cl‐ ion.( from point
B to C).
‐Continued addition of chlorine will produced free available chlorine (at
point C). point C is called the break point.

91
Break‐point chlorination
92
‐The chlorine added is called the dosage.
‐ The amount used to oxidize the materials existing in water is called the
demand.
‐ The Free residual = dosage – demand
‐The residual between points A to C is called combined residual
because the chlorine is in the form of chloramines and
chloro‐organics.
‐From point C and up a free residual chlorine start to
appear. in water in addition to the combined residual.
‐The free Chlorine residual is composed of un‐reacted
forms of chlorine HOCl and OCl‐.
‐The total residual after the break point = free + combined.
‐Since the free residual is much more effective in disinfection, all the
regulations require a free residual of at least 0.20 mg/l at the farthest tap
in the system. The residual chlorine in the produced water is typically 2 –
5 mg/l just at the outlet of the treatment .
‐ since free residual appears only after the breakpoint, so we need to
decide the breakpoint dosage.
Thus the required dosage = breakpoint dosage + free residual 93
Example :
Referring to the Figure, if a dosage of 1.8 mg/L is applied, determine:
(1. ) The amount free chlorine residual (2. )The amount of combined residual,
(3. )The amount of total residual, (4.) What is the chlorinedemand?
Destruction of Chloramines and Presence of
chlorine residual chloro-organic chloro-organic
by reducing compounds compounds not
0.5 compounds destroyed

0.4
Chlorine residual (mg/L)

Formation of chloro-organic
compounds and chloramines free residual
0.3

0.2
Breakpoint
Combined residual
0.1

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Chlorine added (mg/L)

From the figure:

1. The of free chlorine residual at a dosage of 1.80 mg/L= 0.40mg/L.

2. The combined residual at the breakpoint = 0.21mg/L.

3. The Total residual = 0.40 + 0.21 mg/L = 0.61 mg/L.

4. Chlorine demand = 1.40 mg/L