INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

In electronics, an integrated circuit is a miniaturized

electronic circuit (semiconductor devices, as well
as passive components) that has been
manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of
semiconductor material.

Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic

equipment in use today and have revolutionized
the world of electronics.
 ADVANTAGES OF IC’S
 SMALL SIZE
 LOW COST
 IMPROVED PERFORMANCE
 HIGH RELIABILITY AND RUGGEDNESS
 LOW POWER CONSUMPTION
 LESS AFFECTED TO PARAMETER VARIATION
 EASY TROUBLESHOOTING
 INCREASED OPERATING SPEED
 LESS WEIGHT,VOLUME
 EASY REPLACEMENT
 DISADVANTAGES OF IC’S

 AS IC IS SMALL IN SIZE ITS UNABLE TO DISSIPATE

LARGE AMOUNT OF POWER. INCREASE IN
CURRENT MAY PRODUCE ENOUGH HEAT WHICH
MAY DESTROY THE DEVICE.

 AT PRESENT COILS, INDUCTORS AND

TRANSFORMERS CAN NOT BE PRODUCED IN IC
FORM.
 CLASSIFICATION OF IC’S

On the basis of fabrication techniques

used

On the basis of the chip size On the basis

of applications
ON BASIS OF FABRICATION

 Monolithic IC’s

 Hybrid or Multi-chip
ICs.
 Thin and Thick Film
IC’s.
 ON BASIS OF CHIP SIZE

SSI (small-scale integration)

MSI (medium-scale integration)

 LSI (large-scale integration)

VLSI (very large-scale integration)

ULSI (ultra large-scale integration)

SSI AND MSI

Small scale integration (SSI)

has 3 to 30 gates/chip or Up
to 100 electronic components
per chip

Medium scale integration

(MSI) has 30 to 300
gates/chip or
100 to 3,000 electronic
components per chip
LSI AND VLSI

Large scale integration (LSI)-300 to

3,000 gates/chip or 3,000 to 100,000
electronic components per chip.

Very large scale integration (VLSI)-

more than 3,000 gates/chip or
100,000 to 1,000,000 electronic
components per chip

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ULSI

Ultra Large-Scale Integration

(ULSI)- More than 1 million
electronic components per chip

The Intel 486 and Pentium

microprocessors, for example, use
ULSI technology. The line
between VLSI and ULSI is
vague.

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 OP-AMP
• OP-AMP is basically a multistage amplifier which uses a
number of amplifier stages interconnected to each other.

• The integrated op amp offers all the advantage of

monolithic integrated circuit such as small size ,high
reliability ,reduced cost, less power consumption.

•OP-AMP amplifies the difference between

two signal and diminish common
signal.
 Symbol and terminals

• An OP-AMP has a two input terminal, one output terminal and

two supply voltage terminals.
• The input terminal marked with negative(-) sign is called as an
inverting terminal .If we connect the input signal to this terminal
then the amplified output signal is 180º out of phase with respect
to input.
• The input terminal marked with positive (+) sign is called
as Non-Inverting terminal. If the input is applied to this
pin then the amplified output is in phase with the input.

• Offset null is used to nullify the offset voltage and pin no

8 is dummy pin.
 Generic View of Op-amp Internal Structure
An op-amp is usually comprised of at least three different amplifier stages (see
figure)Differential amplifier input stage with gain a1(v+ - v-) having inverting & non-
inverting inputsStage 2 is a “Gain” stage with gain a2 and differential or singled
ended input and output. Output stage is an emitter follower (or source follower)
stage with a gain = ~1 and single-ended output with a large current driving
capability
Simple Op-Amp Model (lower right figure):
Two supplies VPOS and VNEG are utilized and always assumed (even if not
explicitly shown) An input resistance rin (very high). An output resistance rout
(very low) in series with output voltage source vo
Linear Transfer function is vo = a1 a2(v+ - v-) = Ao(v+ - v-) where Ao is open-loop
gainvo is clamped at VPOS or VNEG if Ao (v+ - v-) > VPOS or < VNEG, respectively

R. W. Knepper, SC412, slide 2-2

 OP- AMP Parameters
Input Bias Current:
The input bias current (IB) is the average of the currents enter into the two input
terminals with the output at zero volts.
Typically the input bias current is around 80nA.
This input bias current makes a voltage drop across the equivalent source
impedance seen from the input side of opamp.
Input Offset Current:
The input offset current is the difference between the two input currents of the
opamp with the output at zero volts.
Typically the input offset current for a 741 op-amp is 20 nA .
Input Offset Voltage
In the ideal op amp when both inputs are at zero volts the output should be zero
volts.Due to imbalances within the device a small amount of voltage will appear at
the output. This extra voltage can be eliminated by giving a small voltage called
Input offset voltage (VOS) to the amplifier.
Typically the input offset voltage for a 741 op-amp is around 1mV
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio:
•In OPAMP, the output voltage is proportional to the difference between the voltages
applied to its two input terminals.
•When the two input voltages are equal ideally the output voltages should be zero.
•A signal applied to both input terminals of the opamp is called as common-mode
signal. Usually it is an unwanted noise voltage.
•The ability of an op amp to suppress common-mode signals is expressed in terms
of its common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
•Typically the CMRR for a 741 op-amp is around 90 dB.
•CMRR=20 log10[Differential Voltage Gain/Common Mode Gain] dB
Slew Rate
•The slew rate is the maximum rate of change of output voltage for a step input
voltage.
•The slew rate makes the output voltage to change at a slower rate than the
applied input.
•Eventually the output waveform is a distortion of the input waveform.
•The typical value for the slew rate is 0.5V/μs.
 Ideal Op Amp
VDD
i v VSS  v0  VDD
+
- vo
i v
VSS

1) v0  Av  v  v 
The open-loop gain, Av, is very large, approaching infinity.

2) i  i  0
The current into the inputs are zero.
 Ideal Op Amp
Ideal Op-Amp Typical Op-Amp

Input Resistance infinity 106  (bipolar)

109  - 1012  (FET)
Input Current 0 10-12 – 10-8 A
Output Resistance 0 100 – 1000 
Operational Gain infinity 105 - 109
Common Mode Gain 0 10-5
Bandwidth infinity Attenuates and phases at high
frequencies (depends on slew
rate)
Temperature independent Bandwidth and gain
Comparator
 Non-inverting Amplifier
vi v Closed-loop voltage gain
+ vo
v vo
- AF 
vi
R2
R1 R1
vi  v  v  vo
R1  R2

vo R2
AF   1 
vi R1
 Unity-Gain Buffer
v Closed-loop voltage gain
vi +
v vo vo
- AF 
vi

vi  v  v  vo

vo
AF  1
vi
Used as a "line driver" that transforms a high input impedance (resistance) to a low
output impedance. Can provide substantial current gain.
 Inverting Amplifier
Current into op amp is zero R2
ii
ii
v  v  0 vi v
- vo
R1 v
v  0 vi +
ii  i 
R1 R1

0  v0 v0
ii   vi v0
R2 R2 
R1 R2

vo R
AF   2
vi R1
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
Current into op amp is zero
i1 R1 v
v1 -
v  v v2
v vo
+
R1
v1  v
i1  R2
R1
v  v0 v1  v v  v0
i1  
R2 R1 R2
R2
v  v2
R1  R2 R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R1  R2

R1 R2
 Differential Amplifier
R2 i1
R2 R2
v1  v2 v2  v0
R1  R2 R  R2
 1 v1
i1 R1 v
R1 R2 - vo
v
v2 +
2
R1
R2 R2 R R2
v0   v1  v2  2
v2
R1 R1  R2 R1  R1  R2 

R2 R2  R2 
v0   v1  1   v2
R1 R1  R2  R1 
R2
v0   v2  v1 
R1